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83-773: The Daniell Peninsula consists of at least four overlapping shield volcanoes that form part of the Hallett Volcanic Province of the McMurdo Volcanic Group . Mount Brewster forms the central portion of the Daniell Peninsula and rises to an elevation of 2,026 m (6,647 ft), forming the highest point on the peninsula. K–Ar or Rb–Sr dating has given an age of 12.4 ± 0.2 million years for Mount Brewster pantelleritic trachyte and an age of 6.9 ± 0.3 million years for Mount Brewster hawaiite lava. A second shield volcano forming

166-778: A correlation with age of the forming lava, with in the case of the Hawaiian chain, steepness increasing with age, as later lavas tend to be more alkali so are more viscous, with thicker flows, that travel less distance from the summit vents. In height they are typically about one twentieth their width. Although the general form of a "typical" shield volcano varies little worldwide, there are regional differences in their size and morphological characteristics. Typical shield volcanoes found in California and Oregon measure 3 to 4 mi (5 to 6 km) in diameter and 1,500 to 2,000 ft (500 to 600 m) in height, while shield volcanoes in

249-545: A far greater distance than those of other eruptive types before solidifying, forming extremely wide but relatively thin magmatic sheets often less than 1 m (3 ft) thick. Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, broad profile of a mature shield volcano. Also unlike other eruptive types, Hawaiian eruptions often occur at decentralized fissure vents , beginning with large "curtains of fire" that quickly die down and concentrate at specific locations on

332-548: A flat region several kilometres wide that might be a small ice-filled caldera . Cape Daniell trachyte lava has an age of 5.8 ± 0.1 million years while Cape Daniell benmoreite lava has an age of 5.6 ± 0.5 million years. The Daniell Peninsula extends along the west coast of the Ross Sea to the east of the Victory Mountains . The Borchgrevink Glacier flows down the southwestern coast of the peninsula, from which it

415-457: A further 13 km (8 mi) below the waterline and into the crust, approximately 80,000 km (19,000 cu mi) of rock. Kīlauea , another Hawaiian shield volcano, is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth, with its most recent eruption occurring in 2021. The Galápagos Islands are an isolated set of volcanoes, consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus, about 1,100 km (680 mi) west of Ecuador. They are driven by

498-583: A prominent feature on these volcanoes and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure. They are fueled by the movement of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot and form a long chain of volcanoes, atolls , and seamounts 2,600 km (1,616 mi) long with a total volume of over 750,000 km (179,935 cu mi). The chain includes Mauna Loa, a shield volcano which stands 4,170 m (13,680 ft) above sea level and reaches

581-440: A single point. The main shield then forms, burying the smaller ones formed by the early eruptions with its lava. Icelandic shields are mostly small (~15 km (4 cu mi)), symmetrical (although this can be affected by surface topography), and characterized by eruptions from summit calderas. They are composed of either tholeiitic olivine or picritic basalt . The tholeiitic shields tend to be wider and shallower than

664-628: A standard archaeology textbook for the remainder of the century, with the seventh and final edition published in 1913. His second book, On the Origin of Civilization , was published in 1870. He held the position of President of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland from 1871 to 1872, as well as the position of Vice President of the Royal Society in 1871. During this period he worked with John Evans ,

747-461: Is Nyamuragira . Eruptions at the shield volcano are generally centered within the large summit caldera or on the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the volcano's flanks. Lava flows from the most recent century extend down the flanks more than 30 km (19 mi) from the summit, reaching as far as Lake Kivu . Erta Ale in Ethiopia is another active shield volcano and one of the few places in

830-667: Is a shield volcano on the southwestern part of Isabela Island and is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption between May and June 2008. The Geophysics Institute at the National Polytechnic School in Quito houses an international team of seismologists and volcanologists whose responsibility is to monitor Ecuador's numerous active volcanoes in the Andean Volcanic Belt and

913-468: Is a type of volcano named for its low profile, resembling a shield lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low viscosity ) lava , which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a stratovolcano . Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form. Shield volcanoes are found wherever fluid, low- silica lava reaches

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996-531: Is common in Hawaiʻi; most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a so-called "wall of fire" along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. This accounts for their asymmetrical shape, whereas Icelandic volcanoes follow a pattern of central eruptions dominated by summit calderas , causing the lava to be more evenly distributed or symmetrical. Most of what is currently known about shield volcanic eruptive character has been gleaned from studies done on

1079-744: Is fed by the Langevad Glacier and the Bargh Glacier . Mount Prior looks over the point where the Humphries Glacier flowing southwest joins the Borchgrevink Glacier. The Humphries Glacier is saddled with the Whitehall Glacier , which flows north from below Mount Brewster along the east coast of the peninsula to enter Tucker Inlet at the north of the peninsula. Cape Jones is the southernmost point of

1162-399: Is relatively smooth and flows with a ropey texture, and ʻaʻā flows which are denser, more viscous (and thus slower moving) and blockier. These lava flows can be anywhere between 2 and 20 m (10 and 70 ft) thick. ʻAʻā lava flows move through pressure— the partially solidified front of the flow steepens because of the mass of flowing lava behind it until it breaks off, after which

1245-534: Is taken from the German term Schildvulkan , coined by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1888 and which had been calqued into English by 1910. Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic types— stratovolcanoes , lava domes , and cinder cones —by their structural form, a consequence of their particular magmatic composition. Of these four forms, shield volcanoes erupt

1328-523: The 1875 FA Cup Final . His nephew, Percy Lubbock , was a prominent man of letters and another nephew was the writer and historian Basil Lubbock . Lubbock married Ellen Frances Horden in April 1856. Five years after her death, on 17 May 1884 he married Alice Lane Fox, the daughter of Augustus Pitt Rivers . He rebuilt Kingsgate Castle , near Broadstairs in Kent, as his family home, where he died in 1913. He

1411-479: The Galápagos hotspot , and are between approximately 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age. The largest island, Isabela , consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes, each delineated by a large summit caldera. Española , the oldest island, and Fernandina , the youngest, are also shield volcanoes, as are most of the other islands in the chain. The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as

1494-685: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, Iceland is the site of about 130 volcanoes of various types. Icelandic shield volcanoes are generally of Holocene age, between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. The volcanoes are also very narrow in distribution, occurring in two bands in the West and North Volcanic Zones. Like Hawaiian volcanoes, their formation initially begins with several eruptive centers before centralizing and concentrating at

1577-838: The Simplified Spelling Society . Darwin rented land, originally from Lubbock's father, in Sandwalk wood where he performed his daily exercise, and in 1874 agreed with Lubbock to exchange the land for a piece of pasture in Darwin's property. When Darwin died in 1882, Lubbock suggested the honour of burial in Westminster Abbey , organising a letter to the dean to arrange this, and was one of the pallbearers. In May 1884, an article appeared in Scientific American describing experiments by Lubbock in

1660-421: The 1976–1979 Viking mission . The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to 14 mi (23 km) high and 370 mi (595 km) in diameter, far larger than the 6 mi (10 km) high, 74 mi (119 km) wide Hawaiian shields. The highest of these, Olympus Mons , is the tallest known mountain on any planet in

1743-687: The Banking Busy Bee, Improve his shining Hours? By studying on Bank Holidays, Strange insects and Wild Flowers He corresponded extensively with Charles Darwin , who lived nearby at Down House . Lubbock stayed in Downe except for a brief period from 1861 to 1865, when he lived in Chislehurst . Both men were active advocates of English spelling reform , and members of the Spelling Reform Association, precursor to

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1826-568: The Galapagos Islands. La Cumbre is an active shield volcano on Fernandina Island that has been erupting since April 11, 2009. The Galápagos islands are geologically young for such a big chain, and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends, one north-northwest, and one east–west. The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes. Curiously, they do not form

1909-535: The Galápagos Platform. This platform creates a shallow water depth of 360 to 900 m (1,181 to 2,953 ft) at the base of the islands, which stretch over a 174 mi (280 km) diameter. Since Charles Darwin 's visit to the islands in 1835 during the second voyage of HMS Beagle , there have been over 60 recorded eruptions in the islands, from six different shield volcanoes. Of the 21 emergent volcanoes, 13 are considered active. Cerro Azul

1992-695: The Mount Lubbock vicinity to the main mass of Daniell Peninsula. The descriptive name was applied by NZ-APC in 1966. 73°07′S 169°15′E  /  73.117°S 169.250°E  / -73.117; 169.250 . A spectacular cirque indenting the coast of Daniell Peninsula 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) west-southwest of Cape Phillips. Named in 1966 by the NZ-APC for its appearance in plan and oblique views. 73°04′S 169°36′E  /  73.067°S 169.600°E  / -73.067; 169.600 . A cape approximately midway along

2075-809: The Peninsula. North of Cape Jones are Mount Lubbock, Touried Peak, Narrow Neck, the Mandible Cirque and Cape Phillips. Cape Daniell on the northeast of the peninsula marks the mouth of the Tucker Inlet, opposite Cape Wheatstone on the Hallett Peninsula to the north. Named features of the Daniell Peninsula include: 72°58′S 168°47′E  /  72.967°S 168.783°E  / -72.967; 168.783 . A mountain, 1,220 metres (4,000 ft) high, about 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) west of Mount Brewster, rising at

2158-782: The accumulation of fragmentary material from particularly powerful explosive eruptions, and rarer felsic lava shields formed by unusually fluid felsic magmas. Examples of pyroclastic shields include Billy Mitchell volcano in Papua New Guinea and the Purico complex in Chile ; an example of a felsic shield is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia , Canada. Shield volcanoes are similar in origin to vast lava plateaus and flood basalts present in various parts of

2241-489: The ancient stone circle from being built on. This, and other threats to the nation's heritage, persuaded him that some legal protection was needed. In 1874, he introduced a parliamentary bill that would identify a list of ancient sites that deserved legal protection. After several later attempts and against some opposition, it was not until 1882 that a much watered down version, The Ancient Monuments Act , came into being. Though restricted to 68 largely prehistoric monuments, it

2324-508: The central Mexican Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field average 340 m (1,100 ft) in height and 4,100 m (13,500 ft) in width, with an average slope angle of 9.4° and an average volume of 1.7 km (0.4 cu mi). Rift zones are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types. The large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting

2407-521: The east side of Daniell Peninsula, 8 nautical miles (15 km; 9.2 mi) southeast of Mount Brewster. Discovered in January 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for Lieutenant Charles G. Phillips of the Terror. 72°43′S 169°55′E  /  72.717°S 169.917°E  / -72.717; 169.917 . A cape at the northeast extremity of Daniell Peninsula which marks the south side of

2490-424: The encroachment of municipal trading and the increase of the municipal debt. Lubbock's thoughts about the nature and value of politics were deeply influenced by his scientific research, particularly his writings on early human society. He believed that the cognitive foundations of morality could be shaped through political economy, particularly through a national education system that implemented subjects mandated by

2573-567: The entrance to Tucker Inlet. Discovered, January 15, 1841, by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for Professor John Frederic Daniell , chemist of King's College, Cambridge University, and Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Geological Survey . Shield volcano A shield volcano

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2656-451: The extents of the volcano have not been confirmed. Although Tamu Massif was initially believed to be a shield volcano, Sanger and his colleagues acknowledged in 2019 that Tamu Massif is not a shield volcano. Shield volcanoes feature a gentle (usually 2° to 3°) slope that gradually steepens with elevation (reaching approximately 10°) before flattening near the summit, forming an overall upwardly convex shape. These slope characteristics have

2739-731: The field of human-animal communication . In 1884, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society and in 1893, a member of the American Antiquarian Society . He received the 1903 Prestwich Medal from the Geological Society of London . Lubbock was one of eight brothers and three sisters; three brothers, Alfred , Nevile and Edgar , played first-class cricket for Kent . Edgar and Alfred also played football and played together for Old Etonians in

2822-681: The first monograph on UK Springtails ( Collembola ) ( Monograph on the Collembola and Thysanura , Ray Society, London), and on other natural history topics. He discovered that ants were sensitive to light in the near ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum. He also noted that ants used the angle of the sun for orientation. In 1874 he became the first President of the British Beekeepers Association . A verse in Punch in 1882 described his activities: How doth

2905-649: The founding members (along with Thomas Henry Huxley and others) of the elite X Club , a dining club composed of nine gentlemen to promote the theories of natural selection and academic liberalism. He held a number of influential academic positions, including President of the Ethnological Society from 1864 to 1865, vice-president of Linnean Society in 1865, and President of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology in 1868. In 1865 he published Pre-Historic Times , which became

2988-755: The general level of the central part of Daniell Peninsula and marks its greatest elevation. Named in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross for Sir David Brewster , Scottish physicist. 73°17′S 169°13′E  /  73.283°S 169.217°E  / -73.283; 169.217 . The cape lying immediately southeast of Mount Lubbock and marking the south tip of Daniell Peninsula. Discovered in January 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for Captain William Jones, Royal Navy. 73°13′S 169°08′E  /  73.217°S 169.133°E  / -73.217; 169.133 . A coastal peak, 1,630 metres (5,350 ft) high, rising immediately north of Cape Jones at

3071-410: The general mass behind it moves forward. Though the top of the flow quickly cools down, the molten underbelly of the flow is buffered by the solidifying rock above it, and by this mechanism, ʻaʻā flows can sustain movement for long periods of time. Pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava "toes" in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of

3154-675: The head of Whitehall Glacier in the west part of Daniell Peninsula. Named by New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE), 1957–58, for George T. Prior of the Mineral Department, British Museum, who studied and analyzed the rocks obtained from this region by the British National Antarctic Expedition (BrNAE), 1901-04. 72°57′S 169°23′E  /  72.950°S 169.383°E  / -72.950; 169.383 . A small peak, 2,025 metres (6,644 ft) high, that rises above

3237-573: The height of the volcano above the sea floor , the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft). Mount Everest , by comparison, is 8,848 m (29,029 ft) in height. In 2013, a team led by the University of Houston 's William Sager announced the discovery of Tamu Massif , an enormous extinct submarine volcano, approximately 450 by 650 km (280 by 400 mi) in area, which dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on Earth. However,

3320-468: The largest volcanic features on Earth. The summit of the largest subaerial volcano in the world, Mauna Loa , lies 4,169 m (13,678 ft) above sea level , and the volcano, over 60 mi (100 km) wide at its base, is estimated to contain about 80,000 km (19,000 cu mi) of basalt. The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the crust beneath it a further 8 km (5 mi). Accounting for this subsidence and for

3403-641: The lava or shear stress on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an ʻaʻā one, but the reverse never occurs. Although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so. Some volcanoes, such as Mount Wrangell in Alaska and Cofre de Perote in Mexico, exhibit large enough swings in their historical magmatic eruptive characteristics to cast strict categorical assignment in doubt; one geological study of de Perote went so far as to suggest

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3486-543: The least viscous lavas. Whereas stratovolcanoes and lava domes are the product of highly viscous flows, and cinder cones are constructed of explosively eruptive tephra , shield volcanoes are the product of gentle effusive eruptions of highly fluid lavas that produce, over time, a broad, gently sloped eponymous "shield". Although the term is generally applied to basaltic shields, it has also at times been applied to rarer scutiform volcanoes of differing magmatic composition—principally pyroclastic shields , formed by

3569-778: The most prominent ones are situated along the Snake River in Idaho and the Columbia River in Washington and Oregon, where they have been measured to be over 1 mi (2 km) in thickness. Calderas are a common feature on shield volcanoes. They are formed and reformed over the volcano's lifespan. Long eruptive periods form cinder cones, which then collapse over time to form calderas. The calderas are often filled up by progressive eruptions, or formed elsewhere, and this cycle of collapse and regeneration takes place throughout

3652-464: The news might be of a new pony, and was disappointed to learn it was only that Charles Darwin was moving to Down House in the village. The youth was soon a frequent visitor to Down House, and became the closest of Darwin's younger friends. Their relationship stimulated young Lubbock's passion for science and evolutionary theory. John's mother, Harriet, was deeply religious. In 1845, Lubbock began studies at Eton College . After finishing school, he

3735-554: The other key figure in the establishment of the discipline of archaeology. He invented the terms " Palaeolithic " and " Neolithic " to denote the Old and New Stone Ages , respectively. He also introduced a Darwinian-type theory of human nature and development. "What was new was Lubbock's ... insistence that, as a result of natural selection, human groups had become different from each other, not only culturally, but also in their biological capacities to utilize culture." Lubbock complained in

3818-421: The pamphlet Proportional Representation shortly after the founding of this organization. He is credited with the now-common use of multi-member districts instead of country-wide districting proposed by Thomas Hare in his 1859 single transferable voting (STV) proposal. In recognition of his contributions to the sciences, Lubbock received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford , Cambridge (where he

3901-549: The picritic shields. They do not follow the pattern of caldera growth and destruction that other shield volcanoes do; caldera may form, but they generally do not disappear. Bingöl Mountains are one of the shield volcanoes in Turkey . In East Africa, volcanic activity is generated by the development of the East African Rift and from nearby hotspots. Some volcanoes interact with both. Shield volcanoes are found near

3984-630: The preface to Pre-Historic Times about Charles Lyell : Note.—In his celebrated work on the Antiquity of Man , he coined the term Neolithic in 1865. Sir Charles Lyell has made much use of my earlier articles in the Natural History Review , frequently, indeed, extracting whole sentences verbatim, or nearly so. But as he has in these cases omitted to mention the source from which his quotations were derived, my readers might naturally think that I had taken very unjustifiable liberties with

4067-506: The rift and off the coast of Africa, although stratovolcanoes are more common. Although sparsely studied, the fact that all of its volcanoes are of Holocene age reflects how young the volcanic center is. One interesting characteristic of East African volcanism is a penchant for the formation of lava lakes ; these semi-permanent lava bodies, extremely rare elsewhere, form in about 9% of African eruptions. The most active shield volcano in Africa

4150-570: The same volcanic "line" associated with most hotspots. They are not alone in this regard; the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain in the North Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain. In addition, there is no clear pattern of age between the volcanoes, suggesting a complicated, irregular pattern of creation. How the islands were formed remains a geological mystery, although several theories have been proposed. Located over

4233-424: The seafloor. The Hawaiian and Galápagos shields, and other hotspot shields like them, are constructed of oceanic island basalt. Their lavas are characterized by high levels of sodium , potassium , and aluminium . Features common in shield volcanism include lava tubes . Lava tubes are cave-like volcanic straights formed by the hardening of overlaying lava. These structures help further the propagation of lava, as

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4316-454: The seat at the election of 1880 , but was at once elected member for London University , of which he had been vice-chancellor since 1872. As an MP, Lubbock had a distinguished political career, with four main political agendas: promotion of the study of science in primary and secondary schools; the national debt, free trade, and related economic issues; protection of ancient monuments; securing of additional holidays and shorter working hours for

4399-402: The site of one of the longest-lasting rift eruptions in known history. The Hawaiian shield volcanoes are not located near any plate boundaries ; the volcanic activity of this island chain is distributed by the movement of the oceanic plate over an upwelling of magma known as a hotspot . Over millions of years, the tectonic movement that moves continents also creates long volcanic trails across

4482-610: The skull of a musk ox in a gravel pit, a discovery that was commended by Darwin. A collection of Iron Age antiquities Lubbock and Sir John Evans excavated at the site of Hallstatt in Austria is now in the British Museum 's collection. He spoke in support of the evolutionist Thomas Henry Huxley at the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate . During the 1860s, he published many articles in which he used archaeological evidence to support Darwin's theory. In 1864, he became one of

4565-680: The solar system. Venus has over 150 shield volcanoes which are much flatter, with a larger surface area than those found on Earth, some having a diameter of more than 700 km (430 mi). Although the majority of these are long extinct it has been suggested, from observations by the Venus Express spacecraft , that many may still be active. John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury, 4th Baronet , PC , DL , FRS , FRAI (30 April 1834 – 28 May 1913), known as Sir John Lubbock, 4th Baronet , from 1865 until 1900,

4648-532: The south end of Daniell Peninsula, Victoria Land. The name given by New Zealand Antarctic Place Names Committee (NZ-APC) in 1966 is descriptive of the exceptionally broken ice summit. 73°06′S 169°03′E  /  73.100°S 169.050°E  / -73.100; 169.050 . A narrow, but elevated isthmus or neck of land between Langevad Glacier and Mandible Cirque in the south part of Daniell Peninsula. The feature serves to join Tousled Peak and

4731-420: The south end of Daniell Peninsula. Discovered in January 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for Sir John Lubbock , treasurer of the Royal Society. 73°11′S 169°01′E  /  73.183°S 169.017°E  / -73.183; 169.017 . Small ice-covered peak, 1,220 metres (4,000 ft) high, situated 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) northwest of the summit of Mount Lubbock in

4814-558: The southern end of the peninsula is deeply dissected by the Mandible Cirque . It contains the small satellite vent of Tousled Peak and the prominent ice-draped cone-like peak of Mount Lubbock. A dike cutting Mandible Cirque comenditic trachyte has given an age of 9.5 ± 0.1 million years. The Cape Daniell shield volcano at the northern end of the Daniell Peninsula has an elevation of 1,910 m (6,270 ft), with its highest point being an unnamed peak. The summit area contains

4897-549: The state. He held that the minds of children could be shaped in the direction of democracy, liberalism and morality through learning how to read and write. To this goal he was a strong supporter of the Elementary Education Act 1870 and he defended the introduction of the national curriculum during the 1870s and 1880s. In 1879, Lubbock was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers . In 1881, he

4980-463: The surface of a rocky planet. However, they are most characteristic of ocean island volcanism associated with hot spots or with continental rift volcanism. They include the largest active volcanoes on Earth, such as Mauna Loa . Giant shield volcanoes are found on other planets of the Solar System , including Olympus Mons on Mars and Sapas Mons on Venus . The term 'shield volcano'

5063-1082: The surface wells up), such as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain and the Galápagos Islands , or over more conventional rift zones, such as the Icelandic shields and the shield volcanoes of East Africa. Although shield volcanoes are not usually associated with subduction , they can occur over subduction zones. Many examples are found in California and Oregon, including Prospect Peak in Lassen Volcanic National Park , as well as Pelican Butte and Belknap Crater in Oregon. Many shield volcanoes are found in ocean basins , such as Kīlauea in Hawaii, although they can be found inland as well—East Africa being one example of this. The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in

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5146-440: The surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, accumulating into spatter cones . If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long-lived; Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a cinder cone of Kīlauea , erupted continuously from January 3, 1983, until April 2018. Flows from Hawaiian eruptions can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics: pāhoehoe lava which

5229-420: The term "compound shield-like volcano" instead. Most mature shield volcanoes have multiple cinder cones on their flanks, the results of tephra ejections common during incessant activity and markers of currently and formerly active sites on the volcano. An example of these parasitic cones is at Puʻu ʻŌʻō on Kīlauea —continuous activity ongoing since 1983 has built up a 2,290 ft (698 m) tall cone at

5312-472: The volcano's lifespan. Interactions between water and lava at shield volcanoes can cause some eruptions to become hydrovolcanic . These explosive eruptions are drastically different from the usual shield volcanic activity and are especially prevalent at the waterbound volcanoes of the Hawaiian Isles . Shield volcanoes are found worldwide. They can form over hotspots (points where magma from below

5395-442: The volcano's rift zones. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with pyroclasts , they cannot cool off fast enough because of

5478-433: The volcanoes of Hawaiʻi Island , by far the most intensively studied of all shields because of their scientific accessibility; the island lends its name to the slow-moving, effusive eruptions typical of shield volcanism, known as Hawaiian eruptions . These eruptions, the least explosive of volcanic events, are characterized by the effusive emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low gaseous content . These lavas travel

5561-534: The walls of the tube insulate the lava within. Lava tubes can account for a large portion of shield volcano activity; for example, an estimated 58% of the lava forming Kīlauea comes from lava tubes. In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out of a long fissure instead of a central vent, and shrouds the countryside with a long band of volcanic material in the form of a broad plateau . Plateaus of this type exist in Iceland, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho;

5644-441: The work of the eminent geologist. A reference to the respective dates will, however, protect me from any such inference. The statement made by Sir Charles Lyell, in a note to page 11 of his work, that my article on the Danish Shell-mounds was published after his sheets were written, is an inadvertence, regretted, I have reason to believe, as much by its author as it is by me." In the 1870s, he bought land at Avebury to prevent part of

5727-443: The working classes. He was successful with numerous enactments in Parliament, including the Bank Holidays Act 1871 and the Ancient Monuments Act 1882 , along with another 28 acts of Parliament. When the Liberals split in 1886 on the issue of Irish Home Rule , Lubbock joined the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party in opposition to Irish home rule. A prominent supporter of the Statistical Society , he took an active part in criticizing

5810-538: The world is the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes follow a distinct evolutionary pattern of growth and death. The chain contains at least 43 major volcanoes, and Meiji Seamount at its terminus near the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench is 85 million years old. The youngest part of the chain is Hawaii, where the volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km in volume), and their rough, decentralized shape. Rift zones are

5893-634: The world with a permanent lava lake, which has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906. Other volcanic centers include Menengai , a massive shield caldera, and Mount Marsabit in Kenya. Shield volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they have been found on Mars , Venus , and Jupiter's moon, Io . The shield volcanoes of Mars are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. On both planets, they have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during

5976-436: The world. These are eruptive features which occur along linear fissure vents and are distinguished from shield volcanoes by the lack of an identifiable primary eruptive center. Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions. With the exclusion of flood basalts, mature shields are

6059-667: Was President of the Royal Statistical Society from 1900 to 1902. In November 1905, together with Lord Courtney of Penwith , he founded the Anglo-German Friendship Committee which sought to counteract the influence of the British war party, whose anti-German propaganda was then at its zenith, and smooth the way towards more amicable relations between England and Germany . Lubbock was a proponent of easy access for all to books and

6142-710: Was Rede lecturer in 1886), Edinburgh , Dublin and Würzburg ; and was appointed a trustee of the British Museum in 1878. He received the German Order Pour le Mérite for Science and Arts in August 1902. From 1888 to 1892, he was president of the London Chamber of Commerce , and he was later President of the Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom. In local politics, he

6225-413: Was an English banker, Liberal politician, philanthropist , scientist and polymath . Lubbock worked in his family company as a banker but made significant contributions in archaeology , ethnography , and several branches of biology . He coined the terms " Palaeolithic " and " Neolithic " to denote the Old and New Stone Ages, respectively. He helped establish archaeology as a scientific discipline, and

6308-565: Was born, and another in Mitcham Grove. Lubbock senior had studied mathematics at Cambridge University and had written on probability, and on astronomy. A Fellow of the Royal Society , he was keenly involved in the scientific debates of the time, as well as serving as the Vice Chancellor of London University . During 1842, his father brought home a "great piece of news": the young Lubbock said later that he initially thought that

6391-483: Was deeply involved in the passing of the Public Libraries Act , 1892. The quotation, "We may sit in our library and yet be in all quarters of the earth", is often attributed to Lubbock. This variation appears in his book The Pleasures of Life . In addition to his work at his father's bank, Lubbock took a keen interest in archaeology and evolutionary theory. In 1855, he and Charles Kingsley discovered

6474-468: Was employed by his father's bank, Lubbock & Co. (which later amalgamated with Coutts & Co. ), of which he became a partner at the age of 22. Around 1852, he assisted Darwin's research by examining and illustrating barnacles. In 1865, he succeeded to the baronetcy . In the early 1870s, Lubbock became increasingly interested in politics. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was elected as a Liberal Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Maidstone . He lost

6557-571: Was from 1889 to 1890 vice-chairman and from 1890 to 1892 chairman of the London County Council . In February 1890 he was appointed a privy councillor ; and was chairman of the committee of design for the new coinage in 1891. On 22 January 1900, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Avebury , of Avebury , in the county of Wiltshire , his title commemorating the largest Stone Age site in Britain, which he had helped to preserve. He

6640-581: Was influential in debates concerning evolutionary theory. He introduced the first law for the protection of the UK's archaeological and architectural heritage. He promoted the establishment of public libraries and was also a founding member of the X Club . John Lubbock was born in 1834, the son of Sir John Lubbock, 3rd Baronet , a London banker, and his wife Harriet. He was brought up in the family home of High Elms Estate , near Downe in Kent. The family had two homes, one at 29 Eaton Place, Belgrave Square where John

6723-855: Was president of the British Association , and from 1881 to 1886, president of the Linnean Society of London . In March 1883, he founded the Bank Clerks Orphanage, which in 1986 became the Bankers' Benevolent Fund – a charity for bank employees, past and present, and their dependants. In January 1884, he helped found the Proportional Representation League , later to become the Electoral Reform Society . He authored

6806-663: Was succeeded by his eldest son, John . He was buried in St Giles the Abbott Church, in Farnborough, London . Three years later, his remains were disinterred and placed in a family burial ground a few hundred yards from the church, along with the original stone Celtic cross marking his grave. In 1986, Bromley Council, unknown to the Lubbock family, moved the cross back to the main church graveyard. The following

6889-401: Was the forerunner of all later laws governing the UK's archaeological and architectural heritage. Lubbock was also an amateur biologist of some distinction, writing books on hymenoptera ( Ants, Bees and Wasps: a record of observations on the habits of the social hymenoptera. Kegan Paul, London; New York: Appleton, 1884), on insect sense organs and development, on the intelligence of animals,

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