Misplaced Pages

#369630

131-500: The Tours amphitheater (also known as the Caesarodunum amphitheater ) is a Roman amphitheatre located in the historic city center of Tours , France , immediately behind the well known Tours cathedral . It was built in the 1st century when the city was called Caesarodunum . It was built atop a small hill on the outskirts of the ancient urban area, making it safe from floods, convenient for crowds and visitors, and demonstrating

262-402: A buccinator . Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after gathered in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the principia where they and the equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on

393-520: A Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum". The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base ( munimentum , "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum

524-427: A battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired the connotation of tent. The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term castra are: In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as

655-415: A camp had both public and private latrines . A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aqueduct , a structure running

786-410: A cut-off piece of land"> If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind

917-450: A divine reward in heaven and directed his beneficence to alms and charity rather than public works and games. These changes meant that there were ever fewer uses for amphitheatres, and ever fewer funds to build and maintain them. The last construction of an amphitheatre is recorded in 523 in Pavia under Theodoric . After the end of venationes , the only remaining purpose of amphitheatres

1048-510: A farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin castrum in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate ( castrum ) worth 500 talents in tax revenues. This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as 'Lager' als 'abgeschnittenes Stück Land' , "a lager, as

1179-531: A general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 68 kilometres (42 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts ( pali ) fixed in

1310-665: A large structure in a medium-sized city, has been debated since the 1970s and is still not known. While the amphitheater's capacity more than doubled, no known event warranted such an effort. In fact, some evidence suggests that the population of Caesarodonum (Tours) had stopped growing by that time. In its final state, the amphitheater of Tours was among the greatest of the Roman Empire with dimensions comparable structures of Autun , Italica (Spain), Capua (Italy) and Carthage (Tunisia); cities whose political weight and height significantly overshadowed those of Caesarodonum. One theory

1441-464: A modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort." Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum , which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum . Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis , probably a type of "service road", as the sagum , a kind of cloak,

SECTION 10

#1732764750370

1572-413: A monument that was relatively homogeneous in its construction, built in a single period (early second century). Research of the twenty-first century, however has presented a different picture. The current theory is that the amphitheater was originally built in the first century and then altered at two separate times; first it was altered by expansion in the second century creating an amphitheatre almost twice

1703-424: A natural sedimentary rock hill, which minimized masonry work by having it partially built into the rock. Being the middle of a low-lying flood plain, this also provided flood protection. The urban planning was such that the amphitheater had to accommodate large numbers of spectators, from within and outside the city and had to allow space for crowds around the monument. Given the size of this initial urban footprint, it

1834-422: A probable derivation from *k̂es-, schneiden ("cut") in *k̂es-tro-m, Schneidewerkzeug ("cutting tool"). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan castrous ( genitive case ) and Umbrian castruo , kastruvuf ( accusative case ). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin fundus , an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as

1965-473: A proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album , Castrum Inui , Castrum Novum , Castrum Truentinum , Castrum Vergium . The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia , and from this comes the Welsh place name prefix caer- (e.g. Caerleon and Caerwent ) and English suffixes -caster and -chester (e.g. Winchester and Lancaster ). Castrorum Filius , "son of

2096-628: A room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates". From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements. From

2227-524: A stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum , where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis . The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for

2358-878: A venue for concerts and music festivals. Castrum In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire , the Latin word castrum ( pl. : castra ) was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form castrum meant ' fort ', while the plural form castra meant 'camp'. The singular and plural forms could refer in Latin to either a building or plot of land, used as a fortified military base . In English usage, castrum commonly translates to "Roman fort", "Roman camp" and "Roman fortress". However, scholastic convention tends to translate castrum as "fort", "camp", "marching camp" or "fortress". Romans used

2489-437: A waste of money. Spectacles involving animals, venationes , survived until the sixth century, but became costlier and rarer. The spread of Christianity also changed the patterns of public beneficence: where a pagan Roman would often have seen himself as a homo civicus , who gave benefits to the public in exchange for status and honor, a Christian would more often be a new type of citizen, a homo interior , who sought to attain

2620-409: Is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there was a large variety from the various kinds of clerk to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then

2751-414: Is based on research as of 2017. The dimensions of the arena were approximately 68 meters by 50 meters with an area of 2670 m2. The 5600 m2 of the cavea could accommodate at least 14,000 spectators. The structure had eight vomitoria, four of which were the primary entrances and allowed access at the arena level as well as a higher level of the cavea. The other four were secondary, leading to

SECTION 20

#1732764750370

2882-403: Is difficult to determine who had the finances necessary for this costly project and who would ultimately benefit from such an undertaking. An aerial view over the city and streets provides the best overview of the amphitheater of Tours. Rue Manceau ("Manceau Street") descends from the edge of the old cavea from the southeast to the arena and divides it. Rue du Général-Meusnier follows the curve of

3013-399: Is estimated that the population of the city was about 6000 people when the amphitheatre was constructed. The high ground upon which the amphitheater was built also allowed for the demonstration of wealth and power from a distance, a characteristic that was considered very important in the urban planning decisions of the Roman Empire. Studies conducted up to the late 1970s presented an image of

3144-454: Is found in the province of Sevilla, Spain . Its building dimensions are 156.5 × 134 meters and its arena dimensions are 71. 2 × 46.2 meters. Built in the reign of emperor Hadrian , 117–138 AD, the Italica amphitheatre could hold up to 25,000 people and still stands today. In addition to being one of the largest Roman amphitheatres – 148 x 122 meters, with a capacity of 35,000 spectators –

3275-401: Is indirect evidence to suggest that there were once stairs. For example, the cutaway front is attributed to towers made at the time of construction of the castrum . Also, the front wall seems devoid of any decorative element, based on the few remains available for observation. In the second half or towards the end of the third century, the upper part of the cavea was 8 meters above the level of

3406-417: Is plastered on the outer surface. Other cities of Gaul have also used their amphitheater as a defensive element of an enclosure during the 3rd century. For example, the amphitheaters of Périgueux , Amiens , Metz and Trier , were ideal for conversion into a fortification. What is striking in the case of Tours is the perfectly symmetrical positioning of the amphitheater in the heart of the new town plans and

3537-517: Is that the cavea is not contained in the radiating walls and arches, as is seen in the Nîmes Arena , but rather within an outside embankment that slopes towards the arena. In Tours, the excavation of land in the arena during the original construction helped form this embankment. Spectators likely sat directly on the grassy slope of the embankment, but it is possible wooden bleachers (yet to be discovered) may have been used. Another primitive feature

3668-420: Is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock

3799-420: Is the lack of stone steps and minimal masonry employed. For example, masonry was primarily used for the outer wall, the arena wall, galleries or vomitoria, and some radiating retaining walls. The dimensions of this pseudo-elliptical amphitheater in the first phase of its existence, are valued at 112 meters for the major axis and 94 meters for the minor axis. Its estimated area is 8,270 meters2. This

3930-399: The buccina or bucina , the cornu and the tuba . As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians ( aenatores , "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina , from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by

4061-589: The Amphitheatre of El Jem , in Tunisia , is also one of the best preserved. It is a free-standing amphitheatre built entirely out of stone blocks, similar in structure to the Roman Colosseum. Most of the supporting structure of the tiered seating is intact, and the podium, arena, and underground passages are almost entirely intact. Some of the seating is also still intact and the amphitheatre serves as

Tours Amphitheatre - Misplaced Pages Continue

4192-527: The Colosseum , is the archetypal and the largest amphitheatre. Built from 72 to 80 AD, it remains as an icon of ancient Rome . Its building and arena dimensions are 188 × 156 and 86 × 54 meters, respectively. It was commissioned by the Emperor Vespasian for the capital city of the ancient Roman Empire from 70–80 AD but was not completed and opened until 80 AD by his son Titus , as a gift for

4323-486: The French Revolution . At that time, former vomitoria, that were then mainly underground, were transformed into cellars and partitioned by walls, their length, their width and sometimes even in their height, leading to several levels of basements. The development of the area becomes apparent, however, still with a lot of open spaces (two documents of the thirteenth century mentioned vineyards and stables). Despite

4454-569: The Principia contained the Quaestorium . By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard ( Statores ), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard. Further from the Quaestorium were

4585-536: The Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters. Across the central plaza ( principia ) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria . Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of

4716-447: The Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium ). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria , so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and

4847-612: The latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices ), the Tribunal , where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain ( horrea ) or meat ( carnarea ). Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates

4978-503: The medici ordinarii , had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well. Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as

5109-454: The praetorium . There the general staff planned the day. At a staff meeting the tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the centuriones , who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. For soldiers, the main agendum was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under

5240-566: The Colosseum to help them in Roman power struggles. Yet others were repurposed as Christian churches, including the arenas at Arles, Nîmes , Tarragona and Salona ; the Colosseum became a Christian shrine in the 18th century. Of the surviving amphitheatres, many are now protected as historic monuments ; several are tourist attractions. The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, more generally known as

5371-878: The Empire grew, most of its amphitheatres remained concentrated in the Latin-speaking Western half, while in the East spectacles were mostly staged in other venues such as theatres or stadia. In the West, amphitheatres were built as part of Romanization efforts by providing a focus for the Imperial cult , by private benefactors, or by the local government of colonies or provincial capitals as an attribute of Roman municipal status. A large number of modest arenas were built in Roman North Africa , where most of

Tours Amphitheatre - Misplaced Pages Continue

5502-623: The Julia Caesarea, was erected after the time of Julius Caesar . It was built in Mauretania between the times of 25 BC and 23 AD by the Roman-appointed ruler Juba II and his son Ptolemy , which is now considered to be modern day Cherchell , Algeria. Although it has not endured, its building dimensions are known to have been 168 × 88 meters with an arena dimension of 72.1 × 45.8 meters. The fifth-largest Roman amphitheatre

5633-483: The Western Roman Empire to the area in and around a Roman castrum whose amphitheater is one of the structural parts. The amphitheater was built in the suburbs at the northeast part of the ancient city, immediately southeast of the existing cathedral. The choice of this site corresponds to both the urban planning of the time and the layout of the land. Archaeologists believe the amphitheater was built on

5764-468: The aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana . Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium , also used for "squad". A squad during some periods

5895-450: The amphitheater are not protected as historic sites directly; however, some of the houses built upon it are registered as historical monuments. The ruins of the amphitheater are significant as they are among the oldest known ruins in the city and offer clues about the early history and development of the area. The city of Tours (known as Caesarodunum in Roman times) was established in the valley between Loire and Cher rivers, probably during

6026-631: The amphitheater in the southern half during this time. These projects were likely on the orders of Charles the Bald who, in 869, ordered that the walls of several cities, including Tours are repaired to protect against the Norman raids. A charter of Charles the Simple dated 919 mentions the amphitheater, in the context of a land exchange in a place called "Arenas" (the Arena). This is the last explicit mention of

6157-537: The amphitheater may explain the scarcity of the remains, and this scarcity has contributed to the preservation of the remaining masonry embedded in the embankment. The remains of the Tours Gallo-Roman amphitheater is listed in Table I. As of 2014, none of these remains were subject to protection as a historical monument, or by registration or by classification. The protective measures mentioned in references in

6288-470: The amphitheater was deliberately aligned with the city's street plan: its minor axis continues towards the west, along the Decumanus Maximus of the city, while its long axis is parallel to Cardo . The entrances were paired vomitoria assembled into large blocks with sharp joints, the piers were topped with molded capitals that support a semicircular arch. The ramparts of Tours, made later during

6419-422: The amphitheater, from the northwest part to the southeast. The rue Racine and the rue de la Bazoche form a tangential straight line at the north-west and north-east points of the monument's perimeter. Examination of cadastral maps, Napoleonic (1836 A.D.) or modern is even more suggestive, as parcels of land display a radiant profile and emphasizes the layout of the amphitheater. Similarly, the part corresponding to

6550-434: The architectural expertise was provided by the Roman military. Several factors caused the eventual extinction of the tradition of amphitheatre construction. Gladiatorial munera began to disappear from public life during the 3rd century, due to economic pressure, philosophical disapproval and opposition by the increasingly predominant new religion of Christianity , whose adherents considered such games an abomination and

6681-412: The arena. An annular wall was constructed without the use of quoin tiling and without large recycled stone blocks (from other dismantled buildings) included in its foundations. It was therefore constructed prior to the castrum , who saw these techniques implemented. The stone mixture of the wall was comparable to the enlarged amphitheater, however the wall obliterated some of its structures, indicating it

SECTION 50

#1732764750370

6812-414: The arenas of Senlis . In each case the massive character of a monument, theater or amphitheater, was converted into a fort and offered temporarily shelter to nearby residents in case of attack. This would have been far less labour-intensive than building a fort from scratch. This construction was definitely spread out over a period of several months, likely in response to a deterioration of some kind with

6943-403: The arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread ( panis militaris ) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. For sanitary facilities,

7074-434: The aspect ratio of the castra one could determine the order of battle, and the size of the legion it housed determined the area of the camp. Steinhoff theorizes that Richardson has identified a commonality and builds on the latter's detailed studies to suggest that North African encampments in the time of Hadrian were based on the same geometrical skill. The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of

7205-499: The basic plan is the same. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative. The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. The religious devotion of the Romans to geometry caused them to build into their camps whole-numbered right triangles. Laying it out

7336-500: The camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti , "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from

7467-400: The camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military. The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and

7598-765: The camps", was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors. Castro , also derived from Castrum , is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Spain and other Hispanophone countries, Italy , and the Balkans , either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro ). The terms stratopedon ( army camp ) and phrourion ( fortification ) were used by Greek language authors to translate castrum and castellum , respectively. A castrum

7729-463: The cavea was almost entirely developed prior to the development of the large plot of land remaining at the ancient arena. The difference in height between rue de la Porte-Rouline and rue du Général- Meusnier (approximately 5 meters), which is best viewed behind the Studios cinemas, demonstrates the minimum height of the amphitheatre. In fact, the height of the amphitheater was certainly much higher but

7860-489: The centuries have worn down a part of the step and gradually leveled the monument with the accumulation of debris at its foot. Close examination of the remains of the building (Figure II) requires access to private property in the neighborhood and their cellars, however, behind the Departmental Archives building, a court allows public access to the front wall of the enlarged amphitheater. The massive nature of

7991-411: The circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on

SECTION 60

#1732764750370

8122-484: The conversion of vomitoria as basements, no further reference is made to the ancient monument as the whole area is finally slowly consumed by homes and the remains of the amphitheater were no longer visible. After the Revolution, the houses in the neighborhood were no longer reserved for canons, however the topography had undergone only very slight modifications since. If the walls of the houses were partially removed,

8253-439: The ditch served also as a moat . A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum , which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle ( capita ) and plunder ( praeda ). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps:

8384-632: The end of the second century BC. The next-oldest amphitheatre known, as well as one of the best-researched, is the amphitheatre of Pompeii , securely dated to be built shortly after 70 BC. There are relatively few other known early amphitheatres: those at Abella , Teanum and Cales date to the Sullan era (until 78 BC), those at Puteoli and Telesia from the Augustan (27 BC–14 AD). The amphitheatres at Sutrium , Carmo and Ucubi were built around 40–30 BC, those at Antioch and Phaestum (Phase I) in

8515-436: The entrances to increase the load bearing capacity (see Fig. 1), given the increased height (and weight) along the edge where the mass backfill rose sharply. These construction features have been identified, in several points of the amphitheater and it is not yet possible to say if this same pattern occurred to the entire monument. During the expansion, the external staircases of the original amphitheater were found embedded in

8646-408: The falling Roman Empire, has many blocks that were likely reused from the amphitheater facade. The rest of the masonry of the walls and vaults of the amphitheater, was likely built from small rubble limestone cement ( opus vittatum ) without inclusion of terracotta, enclosing the stone blocks in concrete. The construction dates back to the second half of the first century, or at least fifty years after

8777-658: The fifth). If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra . If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana . At Via Quintana a public market was allowed. The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii , the Praetentura and the Retentura . In

8908-675: The first amphitheatres were built. There are records attesting to temporary wooden amphitheatres built in the Forum Romanum for gladiatorial games from the second century BC onwards, and these may be the origin of the architectural form later expressed in stone. In his Historia Naturalis , Pliny the Elder claims that the amphitheatre was invented during the spectacles of Gaius Scribonius Curio in 53 BC, where two wooden semicircular theatres were rotated towards each other to form one circular amphitheatre, while spectators were still seated in

9039-506: The foundations would essentially remain in place. The amphitheater was completely forgotten up until the nineteenth century, but was rediscovered in 1855 thanks to the actions undertaken by the Archaeological Society of Touraine. Uncertainties still remain about the appearance of the building, its structure and precise dimensions. Beyond these architectural unknown, there are other questions that also remain. The nature of

9170-402: The founding of Caesarodunum (Tours). It was at this time that most ancient monuments of Tours were likely built. This is based on the comparison of the architectural elements of the amphitheater of Tours and those of Amiens, Autun or Saintes, three monuments which have been precisely dated. The characteristics of the masonry (e.g. wall thickness was only 1.4 meters) indicate that the amphitheatre

9301-407: The framework of the building, or simply dug out of the hillside or built up using excavated material extracted during the excavation of the fighting area (the arena). The cavea is traditionally organised in three horizontal sections, corresponding to the social class of the spectators: Similarly, the front row was called the prima cavea and the last row was called the cavea ultima . The cavea

9432-420: The front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexilla , the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to

9563-470: The geometry of the enclosure, only disturbed by the Loire River which washed the base of the north wall. In the ninth century, a section of the front of the amphitheater that had long since collapsed, was repaired with large blocks borrowed from a public building, probably located in the castrum, which had stood since the height of the Roman Empire and also towers may have been built against the front of

9694-410: The goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. Soldiers were also expected to build the camp upon arrival before engaging in any sort of warfare after a day's march. The supply administration was run as a business using money as

9825-417: The grassy slopes, while the masonry was primarily used for the vomitoria and retaining walls . When it was expanded in the 2nd century (to 156 m X 134 m), it became one of the largest structures (among the top ten) in the Roman Empire . It is not clear why the amphitheater was expanded given the population and slow growth of the city at the time. About a century later, this expanded amphitheatre

9956-521: The ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the praetor or the emperor if he was in camp. Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the campus , a "field" outside the castra , from which English "camp" derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There

10087-426: The installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers was required to man the walls all the time, but round-the-clock duty required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. Duty time was divided into vigilia , the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for three hours that day. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly

10218-428: The layout of the streets and radiating lots of the district drew attention to its existence. Surveys and terrain analyses in the 1960s gathered further data on the cellars of the houses which were previously built on the amphitheater walls. Over the past decade, more in-depth studies of the topography and architecture have taken place and are changing the theories and opinions surrounding this monument. The remains of

10349-729: The legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium , a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum , the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders ( Legati ). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to

10480-476: The maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria . In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were speculae , "watchtowers", castella , "small camps", and naval bases. All

10611-402: The major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since

10742-513: The medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum , minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things,

10873-610: The mid-first century BC. In the Imperial era , amphitheatres became an integral part of the Roman urban landscape. As cities vied with each other for preeminence in civic buildings, amphitheatres became ever more monumental in scale and ornamentation. Imperial amphitheatres comfortably accommodated 40,000–60,000 spectators, or up to 100,000 in the largest venues, and were only outdone by the hippodromes in seating capacity . They featured multistoried, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble and stucco cladding, statues and reliefs, or even partially made of marble. As

11004-427: The middle part of the cavea via stairs. The north and south vomitoria had a vault height of about 7.5 meters and a width of 4.9 meters; vomitoria on the west were smaller, measuring only 6.8 meters high and 2.5 meters wide. There were likely eight additional entrances, as it likely had a double exterior staircase at the front of the amphitheater similar to the amphitheatre of Pompeii. The orientation of

11135-582: The most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Munitionibus Castrorum and the works of Polybius . Alan Richardson compares both original authors and concludes that "the Hyginian model greatly reduced the area and perimeter length for any given force." P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies, but

11266-539: The name Via Decumana or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus . In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Decumana , called the Via Quintana , (English: 5th street , from Latin: quintana ,

11397-403: The new embankment. Without being abandoned, they may have been vaulted and connected to the main vomitoria, becoming intermediate steps. Secondary vomitoria do not appear to have been extended to the new facade by corridors, but they may have been connected to a circular gallery on the ground floor. There is no direct evidence that new outside stairs were placed against the front wall, however there

11528-420: The northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good. A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for

11659-529: The other side was the forum , a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. Along

11790-469: The outer wall of the structure. The height of the amphitheater was estimated to be about 25 to 28 meters in the 1970s. More recent discoveries, however suggest this values is closer to between 15 and 18 meters. There are numerous hints that show that the expansion was a renovation project. For example, the width and height of the main vomitoria vary significantly at the junction of two phases of work; two half-diameter reinforcements were built on either side of

11921-518: The palisade. The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present. Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France , Barcelona in Spain ). The pattern

12052-468: The people of Rome. The Amphitheatre of Pompeii is one of the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatres. It is located in the Roman city of Pompeii , and was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, that also buried Pompeii itself and the neighboring town of Herculaneum . It is also the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre built with stone. Another Roman amphitheatre was the Faleria, built 43 A.D. It

12183-491: The power of the city from a distance. The structure was an enormous, elliptical structure approximately 122 meters by 94 meters. According to its design it is classified as a "primitive" amphitheatre. Unlike the famous Colosseum that was made mostly of masonry and built above-ground, the Tours amphitheatre was made mostly of earth and created by moving soil and rock into a bowl shape. Spectators likely sat directly on

12314-528: The praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana . In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria . The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take

12445-555: The presence of the amphitheatre, the ruins of which were perhaps still visible in the undeveloped part of the city. The development of the canonical quarter in the Middle Ages lead to the use of the amphitheatre substructures to support the foundations and cellars of canon houses. These homes were reserved for the canons of the Cathedral Chapter from 1250 A.D. (the time of construction of the new Gothic cathedral), until

12576-410: The purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives. Another feature of the camp was the military hospital ( valetudinarium , later hospitium ). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army . Its physicians,

12707-469: The rank of capital city of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis , and built the defensive wall, usually referred to as a castrum . This castrum was built around the same time as first Tours cathedral (located in the castrum, at the south-west angle). The evidence from excavations carried out in different points of the enclosure of the castrum and systematic reviews of previous work show that outer wall

12838-400: The reign of Augustus or Tiberius (between 10 BC and 30 AD). The ancient city was at least 80 hectares in size and heavily populated along the Loire River. Discoveries thus far indicate that it had at least one temple, two spas, two aqueducts , bridges and an amphitheater. The city reached its peak at the height of the Roman Empire in the second century before shrinking, during the decline of

12969-482: The same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. Whitley Castle however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in Northumberland . Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating

13100-467: The same venue. The word amphitheatrum means "theatre all around". Thus, an amphitheatre is distinguished from the traditional semicircular Roman theatres by being circular or oval in shape. The Roman amphitheatre consists of three main parts: the cavea , the arena , and the vomitorium . The seating area is called the cavea ( Latin for "enclosure"). The cavea is formed of concentric rows of stands which are either supported by arches built into

13231-450: The security and safety of the city inhabitants. The inhabitants at the time would have known that this was a permanent change to the amphitheater, rendering it ineffective in its original function of displaying performances. In a context of growing insecurity and retreat from the city to the more densely settled neighborhoods near the Loire River, Caesarodunum, which gradually took on the name of Civitas Turonorum around 360 A.D. and rose to

13362-574: The shows held by the Tours amphitheater is not known with certainty. It can be assumed that, like the other arenas of the Roman Empire, including Gaul , that there were gladiator fights (as was the case in Bourges ) and executions of convicts (as occurred in Lyon or in Trier). No stone inscription, text, or other clues have been discovered that could provide answers. The rationale for the construction of such

13493-614: The size. It was again altered in the third century, permanently transforming it into a fortification. This fortification would then serve as a starting point for an even larger enclosed area, known as a castrum , that would be built around 350 A.D. The Tours amphitheater is classified as a "primitive" amphitheatre, based on its design, not necessarily its age. It is as large as the amphitheatres in Samarobriva ( Amiens ), Octodurus ( Martigny , Switzerland) or Emerita Augusta ( Mérida, Spain ). Another characteristic these amphitheatres share

13624-504: The soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra , quarta castra , etc. ( a camp of three days , four days , etc.). More permanent camps were castra stativa ( standing camps ). The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia , "summer camps", in which

13755-427: The soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis , "under tents". The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions. Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone. Castra hibernas held eight soldiers to

13886-475: The summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp ( aquatio ) and pastureland to provide grazing ( pabulatio ) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an acies , or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from

14017-675: The table apply only to the height, roofs or the decoration of the houses concerned, but not to their foundations, which are seated on the ruins of the amphitheater. These are, however, preserved by the town's conservation area. Similarly, the perimeter and the Cathedral area, of which the amphitheater is part, is a historic site under the Law of 2 May 1930, and by the Decree of 7 June 1944. Reinforcing pillar(A) Reinforcing pillar (A) Fortification wall (F) Reinforcing pillar(A) Reinforcing pillar of

14148-473: The tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks ( Strigae ). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In

14279-532: The term castrum for different sizes of camps – including large legionary fortresses, smaller forts for cohorts or for auxiliary forces, temporary encampments , and "marching" forts. The diminutive form castellum was used for fortlets, typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a centuria . Castrum appears in Oscan and Umbrian , two other Italic languages , suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language . Julius Pokorny traces

14410-464: The tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages ( vici ) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge ( honesta missio ). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that

14541-470: The two halves. But while this may be the origin of the architectural term amphitheatrum , it cannot be the origin of the architectural concept, since earlier stone amphitheatres, known as spectacula or amphitheatera , have been found. According to Jean-Claude Golvin , the earliest known stone amphitheatres are found in Campania , at Capua , Cumae and Liternum , where such venues were built towards

14672-458: The veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius , citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in

14803-656: The west vomitorium (A) Fortification wall (F) Stairs of the South-west vomitorium (O) Fortification wall (F) rue du General Meusnier Fortification wall (F) Fortification wall (F) Outer wall of amphitheatre (O) Fortification wall (F) (O) Original amphitheatre; (A) amphitheatre addition; (F) fortified amphitheatre Roman amphitheatre Amphitheatres are distinguished from circuses and hippodromes , which were usually rectangular and built mainly for racing events, and stadia , built for athletics , but several of these terms have at times been used for one and

14934-423: The west vomitorium (similar to the decumanus maximus of the city in the first century, the street location of Scellerie) continues outside the castrum and serves as an alignment to the south castrum wall. Already naturally well defended by its high structure during its conversion in the third century, the amphitheater was did not have an apron wall during the construction of the castrum: no additional protection wall

15065-423: Was 8 men or fewer. The centurion , or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it was important for the officers to keep them busy. A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with

15196-491: Was a defensive moat preceded by a counterscarp , dated from the second half of the third century and dug at the foot of the amphitheater. While the remains were discovered in the southeast part of the structure, it was probably completely encircled the amphitheatre. Its maintenance ceased with the building of the castrum. Comparable stone masonry, dating from the same period, exist in Avenches (Switzerland), Lillebonne and

15327-581: Was a desire for emulation among the Gallo-Roman cities, and that they were eager to show their power by building larger, higher, edifice as a civitas . Finally, the source of financing, building, and maintaining such a structure remains an enigma. Spectacular monuments of the time were frequently offered to towns by wealthy citizens, who had financed the construction, however this practice of euergetism in Tours has not been proven thus far by any source. Moreover, during this period of slow economic growth it

15458-513: Was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called metatores , who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") and gromatici who used a groma , a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building ( principia ). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. Richardson writes that from

15589-613: Was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World . Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" – Lancaster , Tadcaster , Worcester , Gloucester , Mancetter , Uttoxeter , Colchester , Chester , Manchester and Ribchester for example. Castle has

15720-543: Was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is De Munitionibus Castrorum , a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor

15851-508: Was expanded in the second half of the second century. While the overall dimensions of the amphitheater exceeded 156 × 134 meters, the size of the arena itself did not change. The capacity, however, more than doubled, having increased to allow for about 34,000 spectators. In this configuration, the amphitheater was extended in its southwestern part, beyond the existing retaining wall of the Général-Meusnier Street, thought to be

15982-400: Was further divided vertically into cunei . A cuneus (Latin for "wedge"; plural, cunei ) was a wedge-shaped division separated by the scalae or stairways. The arched entrances both at the arena level and within the cavea are called the vomitoria (Latin "to spew forth"; singular, vomitorium ) and were designed to allow rapid dispersal of large crowds. It is uncertain when and where

16113-464: Was located in Picenum (now Falerone ), Italy. Its building dimensions were 178.8 × 106.2 meters, and it had an arena shaped like an ellipse. It had twelve entrances, four of which led to the arena and had eight rows of seats divided into three sections. Only the outside wall of the amphitheatre remains and the arena is covered in grass all the way to the podium. The third-largest Roman amphitheatre

16244-400: Was made after those structures. With a thickness of 3.5 meters and a height probably above the level of the cavea, the defensive wall was placed continuous along the entire on the embankment. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the side vomitoria and indoor stairs were completely blocked, leaving the main vomitoria as the only access to the arena (facilitating defence). Moreover, there

16375-407: Was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench ( fossa ), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart ( agger ). On top of this a palisade of stakes ( sudes or valli ) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and

16506-509: Was the Amphitheatre of Capua , with building dimensions of 169.9 × 139.6 meters. It was located in the city of Capua (modern Santa Maria Capua Vetere ), Italy. It was erected by Augustus in the first century B.C. and could hold up to 60,000 spectators. It is known as the arena that Spartacus fought in in 73 B.C. The theatre was eventually destroyed by the Vandals in their invasion of Rome in 456 AD. The fourth-largest Roman amphitheatre,

16637-408: Was the garment of soldiers. Every camp included "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or cardus maximus . This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically "main street" was the via principalis . The central portion

16768-486: Was to be the place of public executions and punishments. After even this purpose dwindled away, many amphitheatres fell into disrepair and were gradually dismantled for building material, razed to make way for newer buildings, or vandalized. Others were transformed into fortifications or fortified settlements, such as at Leptis Magna , Sabratha , Arles and Pola , and in the 12th century the Frangipani fortified even

16899-484: Was transformed into a fortress, with an addition of a rampart style wall, typical during the decline of Roman Empire . It gradually fell into ruin during the Middle Ages and canonical houses were built upon it and gradually concealed it. The vomitoria were at some point transformed into cellars. The amphitheater was then completely forgotten until the 19th century, when it was rediscovered (1855). Evidence such as

17030-424: Was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium , the building of the quaestor (supply officer). On

17161-463: Was well constructed against the amphitheater and extended from its location. Many clues support this thesis. For example, the amphitheater is situated exactly in the middle of the south wall. Also the west, south and east vomitoria, which were outside the defended area, remained in service and may have been converted into a formal castrum entrance as was the case in Trier. Moreover, the main path leading to

#369630