Misplaced Pages

#146853

62-646: A full ToBI transcription consists of six parts: (a) an audio recording, (b) an electronic print-out or paper record of the F0 (fundamental pitch), (c) a tones tier, with an analysis of the tonal events in terms of H and L, (d) a words tier with the words of the utterance in ordinary writing, (e) a break-index tier showing the strength of the junctures, and (f) a miscellaneous tier with comments. Tonal events include pitch accents , phrase accents, and boundary tones . Pitch accents , written as H* or L* (high and low tones, respectively), are typically realized on words that carry

124-522: A transcendental subject ." Anthropologist Adam Kuper (1973) argued that: 'Structuralism' came to have something of the momentum of a millennial movement and some of its adherents felt that they formed a secret society of the seeing in a world of the blind. Conversion was not just a matter of accepting a new paradigm. It was, almost, a question of salvation. Philip Noel Pettit (1975) called for an abandoning of "the positivist dream which Lévi-Strauss dreamed for semiology ," arguing that semiology

186-742: A *, indicating that this target is aligned with the stressed syllable. For example, in the L*+H pitch accent the L target is aligned with the stressed syllable, and it is followed by a trailing H target. This model of pitch accent structure differs from that of the British School, which described pitch accents in terms of 'configurations' like rising or falling tones. It also differs from the American Structuralists' system, in which pitch accents were made up of some combination of low, mid, high, and overhigh tones. Evidence favoring

248-515: A cue to prominence, along with duration, intensity, and spectral composition. Pitch accents are made up of a high (H) or low (L) pitch target or a combination of an H and an L target. The pitch accents of English used in the ToBI prosodic transcription system are: H*, L*, L*+H, L+H*, and H+!H*. Most theories of prosodic meaning in English claim that pitch accent placement is tied to the focus , or

310-597: A fundamental structural basis for human culture. The Biogenetic Structuralism group for instance argued that some kind of structural foundation for culture must exist because all humans inherit the same system of brain structures. They proposed a kind of neuroanthropology which would lay the foundations for a more complete scientific account of cultural similarity and variation by requiring an integration of cultural anthropology and neuroscience —a program that theorists such as Victor Turner also embraced. In literary theory , structuralist criticism relates literary texts to

372-407: A larger structure, which may be a particular genre , a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure , or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs. The field of structuralist semiotics argues that there must be a structure in every text, which explains why it is easier for experienced readers than for non-experienced readers to interpret a text. Everything that

434-474: A new wave of predominantly French intellectuals/philosophers such as historian Michel Foucault , Jacques Derrida , Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser , and literary critic Roland Barthes . Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, these theorists eventually came to be referred to as post-structuralists . Many proponents of structuralism, such as Lacan , continue to influence continental philosophy and many of

496-517: A series of contrasts. Thus, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ represent distinct phonemes because there are cases ( minimal pairs ) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. 'pat' and 'bat'). Analyzing sounds in terms of contrastive features also opens up comparative scope—for instance, it makes clear the difficulty Japanese speakers have differentiating /r/ and /l/ in English and other languages

558-465: A shared goal through the lens of social solidarity when he observed "Mexicanos" and "Anglo-Americans" come together on the same football team to defeat the school's rivals. However, he also continually applies a marxist lens and states that he," wanted to wow peers with a new cultural marxist theory of schooling." Some anthropological theorists, however, while finding considerable fault with Lévi-Strauss's version of structuralism, did not turn away from

620-425: A structuralist reading focuses on multiple texts, there must be some way in which those texts unify themselves into a coherent system. The versatility of structuralism is such that a literary critic could make the same claim about a story of two friendly families ("Boy's Family + Girl's Family") that arrange a marriage between their children despite the fact that the children hate each other ("Boy - Girl") and then

682-495: A structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract structure." The structuralist mode of reasoning has since been applied in a range of fields, including anthropology , sociology , psychology , literary criticism , economics , and architecture . Along with Claude Lévi-Strauss , the most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include linguist Roman Jakobson and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan . The term structuralism

SECTION 10

#1732776580147

744-638: A system of relations. His linguistic approach was also a refutation of evolutionary linguistics . Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 20th century, mainly in France and the Russian Empire , in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague , Moscow , and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. As an intellectual movement, structuralism became the heir to existentialism . After World War II, an array of scholars in

806-534: A word, but tones can be assigned to multiple syllables in a word. In the ToBI system, pitch accents consist of a high (H) or low (L) pitch target or a combination of H and L targets. H and L indicate relative highs and lows in the intonation contour, and their actual phonetic realization is conditioned by a number of factors, such as pitch range and preceding pitch accents in the phrase. In languages in which pitch accents are associated with stressed syllables, one target within each pitch accent may be designated with

868-415: Is a class of linguistic units ( lexemes , morphemes , or even constructions ) that are possible in a certain position in a given syntagm , or linguistic environment (such as a given sentence). The different functional role of each of these members of the paradigm is called 'value' ( French : valeur ). In France, Antoine Meillet and Émile Benveniste continued Saussure's project, and members of

930-932: Is a term used in autosegmental - metrical theory for local intonational features that are associated with particular syllables. Within this framework, pitch accents are distinguished from both the abstract metrical stress and the acoustic stress of a syllable. Different languages specify different relationships between pitch accent and stress placement. Languages vary in terms of whether pitch accents must be associated with syllables that are perceived as prominent or stressed. For example, in French and Indonesian, pitch accents may be associated with syllables that are not acoustically stressed, but in English and Swedish, syllables that receive pitch accents are also stressed. Languages also vary in terms of whether pitch accents are assigned lexically or post-lexically. Lexical pitch accents are associated with particular syllables within words in

992-426: Is also indebted to the anthropological study of myths. Some critics have also tried to apply the theory to individual works, but the effort to find unique structures in individual literary works runs counter to the structuralist program and has an affinity with New Criticism . Yifu Lin criticizes early structural economic systems and theories, discussing the failures of it. He writes: "The structuralism believes that

1054-533: Is ambiguous, referring to different schools of thought in different contexts. As such, the movement in humanities and social sciences called structuralism relates to sociology . Emile Durkheim based his sociological concept on 'structure' and 'function', and from his work emerged the sociological approach of structural functionalism . Apart from Durkheim's use of the term structure , the semiological concept of Ferdinand de Saussure became fundamental for structuralism. Saussure conceived language and society as

1116-525: Is an intellectual current and methodological approach, primarily in the social sciences , that interprets elements of human culture by way of their relationship to a broader system. It works to uncover the structural patterns that underlie all the things that humans do , think , perceive , and feel . Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn , structuralism is: "The belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute

1178-700: Is because these sounds are not contrastive in Japanese. Phonology would become the paradigmatic basis for structuralism in a number of different fields. Based on the Prague school concept, André Martinet in France, J. R. Firth in the UK and Louis Hjelmslev in Denmark developed their own versions of structural and functional linguistics. According to structural theory in anthropology and social anthropology , meaning

1240-439: Is defined as the head of a prosodic phrase. It is the most important accent in the phrase and perceived as the most prominent. In English it is the last pitch accent in a prosodic phrase. If there is only one pitch accent in a phrase, it is automatically the nuclear pitch accent. Nuclear pitch accents are phonetically distinct from prenuclear pitch accents, but these differences are predictable. Pitch accents in English serve as

1302-668: Is distinct both from the organizations of reality and those of ideas, or the imagination—the "third order." In Lacan's psychoanalytic theory, for example, the structural order of " the Symbolic " is distinguished both from " the Real " and " the Imaginary ;" similarly, in Althusser's Marxist theory, the structural order of the capitalist mode of production is distinct both from the actual, real agents involved in its relations and from

SECTION 20

#1732776580147

1364-433: Is expressed. Literary structuralism often follows the lead of Vladimir Propp , Algirdas Julien Greimas , and Claude Lévi-Strauss in seeking out basic deep elements in stories, myths , and more recently, anecdotes, which are combined in various ways to produce the many versions of the ur-story or ur-myth. There is considerable similarity between structural literary theory and Northrop Frye 's archetypal criticism , which

1426-612: Is not to be placed among the natural sciences . Cornelius Castoriadis (1975) criticized structuralism as failing to explain symbolic mediation in the social world; he viewed structuralism as a variation on the " logicist " theme, arguing that, contrary to what structuralists advocate, language—and symbolic systems in general—cannot be reduced to logical organizations on the basis of the binary logic of oppositions . Critical theorist Jürgen Habermas (1985) accused structuralists like Foucault of being positivists ; Foucault, while not an ordinary positivist per se, paradoxically uses

1488-410: Is produced and reproduced within a culture through various practices, phenomena, and activities that serve as systems of signification. A structuralist approach may study activities as diverse as food-preparation and serving rituals, religious rites, games, literary and non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment to discover the deep structures by which meaning is produced and reproduced within

1550-489: Is written seems to be governed by rules, or "grammar of literature", that one learns in educational institutions and that are to be unmasked. A potential problem for a structuralist interpretation is that it can be highly reductive; as scholar Catherine Belsey puts it: "the structuralist danger of collapsing all difference." An example of such a reading might be if a student concludes the authors of West Side Story did not write anything "really" new, because their work has

1612-463: The Prague school of linguistics such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy conducted influential research. The clearest and most important example of Prague school structuralism lies in phonemics . Rather than simply compiling a list of which sounds occur in a language, the Prague school examined how they were related. They determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analysed as

1674-422: The ability of people to act . As the political turbulence of the 1960s and 1970s (particularly the student uprisings of May 1968 ) began affecting academia, issues of power and political struggle moved to the center of public attention. In the 1980s, deconstruction —and its emphasis on the fundamental ambiguity of language rather than its logical structure—became popular. By the end of the century, structuralism

1736-407: The humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, existentialism , such as that propounded by Jean-Paul Sartre , was the dominant European intellectual movement . Structuralism rose to prominence in France in

1798-505: The ideological forms in which those relations are understood. Although French theorist Louis Althusser is often associated with structural social analysis , which helped give rise to " structural Marxism ," such association was contested by Althusser himself in the Italian foreword to the second edition of Reading Capital . In this foreword Althusser states the following: Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from

1860-410: The 'structuralist' ideology…, despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to 'structuralism'…, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the 'structuralist' terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. With a very few exceptions…our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion, as 'structuralist'.… We believe that despite

1922-609: The American anthropological tradition. In Elementary Structures , he examined kinship systems from a structural point of view and demonstrated how apparently different social organizations were different permutations of a few basic kinship structures. In the late 1958, he published Structural Anthropology , a collection of essays outlining his program for structuralism. Blending Freud and Saussure, French (post)structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis . Similarly, Jean Piaget applied structuralism to

ToBI - Misplaced Pages Continue

1984-506: The United States, authors such as Marshall Sahlins and James Boon built on structuralism to provide their own analysis of human society. Structural anthropology fell out of favour in the early 1980s for a number of reasons. D'Andrade suggests that this was because it made unverifiable assumptions about the universal structures of the human mind. Authors such as Eric Wolf argued that political economy and colonialism should be at

2046-420: The beginnings and/or ends of prosodic phrases, to determine the intonational contour of a phrase. The need for pitch accents to be distinguished from edge tones can be seen in contours (1) and (2) in which the same intonational events - an H* pitch accent followed by an L- phrase accent and a H% boundary tone - are applied to phrases of different lengths. Note that in both cases, the pitch accent remains linked to

2108-520: The break is between words: The English ToBI standard distinguishes four or five levels of boundary strength, corresponding roughly to breaks between constituents at different levels of the Prosodic Hierarchy . One signal of boundary strength is lengthening of the preceding syllable: the stronger the boundary, the more lengthening of the preceding syllable. In some versions, level 2 is omitted. Pitch accent (intonation) Pitch accent

2170-467: The children commit suicide to escape the arranged marriage; the justification is that the second story's structure is an 'inversion' of the first story's structure: the relationship between the values of love and the two pairs of parties involved have been reversed. Structuralist literary criticism argues that the "literary banter of a text" can lie only in new structure, rather than in the specifics of character development and voice in which that structure

2232-554: The concept of human freedom and choice, focusing instead on the way that human experience and behaviour is determined by various structures. The most important initial work on this score was Lévi-Strauss's 1949 volume The Elementary Structures of Kinship . Lévi-Strauss had known Roman Jakobson during their time together at the New School in New York during WWII and was influenced by both Jakobson's structuralism, as well as

2294-491: The conversation. The stress/no-stress distinction and the lexical/post-lexical distinction create a typology of languages with regards to their use of pitch accents. Languages that use lexical pitch accents are described as pitch accent languages , in contrast to tone/tonal languages like Mandarin Chinese and Yoruba. Pitch accent languages differ from tone languages in that pitch accents are assigned to only one syllable in

2356-411: The culture. For example, Lévi-Strauss analysed in the 1950s cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (the alliance theory and the incest taboo ), and food preparation. In addition to these studies, he produced more linguistically-focused writings in which he applied Saussure's distinction between langue and parole in his search for the fundamental structures of the human mind, arguing that

2418-558: The exchange of women between groups—as opposed to the ' descent'-based theory described by Edward Evans-Pritchard and Meyer Fortes . While replacing Mauss at his Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes chair, the writings of Lévi-Strauss became widely popular in the 1960s and 1970s and gave rise to the term "structuralism" itself. In Britain, authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach were highly influenced by structuralism. Authors such as Maurice Godelier and Emmanuel Terray combined Marxism with structural anthropology in France. In

2480-452: The failure to develop advanced capital-intensive industries spontaneously in a developing country is due to market failures caused by various structural rigidities..." "According to neoliberalism, the main reason for the failure of developing countries to catch up with developed countries was too much state intervention in the market, causing misallocation of resources, rent seeking and so forth." Rather these failures are more so centered around

2542-555: The forefront of anthropology. More generally, criticisms of structuralism by Pierre Bourdieu led to a concern with how cultural and social structures were changed by human agency and practice, a trend which Sherry Ortner has referred to as ' practice theory '. One example is Douglas E. Foley's Learning Capitalist Culture (2010), in which he applied a mixture of structural and Marxist theories to his ethnographic fieldwork among high school students in Texas. Foley analyzed how they reach

ToBI - Misplaced Pages Continue

2604-417: The fundamental assumptions of some of structuralism's post-structuralist critics are a continuation of structuralist thinking. Russian functional linguist Roman Jakobson was a pivotal figure in the adaptation of structural analysis to disciplines beyond linguistics, including philosophy, anthropology, and literary theory. Jakobson was a decisive influence on anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss , by whose work

2666-401: The lexicon and can serve to distinguish between segmentally similar words. Post-lexical pitch accents are assigned to words in phrases according to their context in the sentence and conversation. Within a word, the pitch accent is associated with the syllable marked as metrically strong in the lexicon. Post-lexical pitch accents change not the identity of the word but rather how the word fits into

2728-420: The most important part, of the phrase. Some theories of prosodic marking of focus are concerned only with nuclear pitch accents. Structuralism 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias Structuralism

2790-412: The most information in a sentence. For example, in the sentence "Mary went to the store to get some milk", a natural pronunciation would include pitch accents on "Mary", "store", and "milk". Other kinds of pitch accents include L*+H (a syllable which starts with a low accent and then rises) and L+H* (again low-high on one syllable, but with the second part accented). Phrase accents , written H- or L-, are

2852-507: The same set of tones. Bruce also found that alignment of the peak of a Swedish pitch accent, rather than the alignment of a rise or fall, reliably distinguished between the two pitch accent types in Swedish. Systems with several target levels often over-predict the number of possible combinations of pitch targets. Within autosegmental - metrical theory, pitch accents are combined with edge tones, also known as boundary tones , which mark

2914-452: The same structure as Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet . In both texts a girl and a boy fall in love (a "formula" with a symbolic operator between them would be "Boy + Girl") despite the fact that they belong to two groups that hate each other ("Boy's Group - Girl's Group" or "Opposing forces") and conflict is resolved by their deaths. Structuralist readings focus on how the structures of the single text resolve inherent narrative tensions. If

2976-401: The so-called "Gang of Four" of structuralism is considered to be Lévi-Strauss , Lacan , Barthes , and Michel Foucault . The origins of structuralism are connected with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics along with the linguistics of the Prague and Moscow schools. In brief, Saussure's structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. Structuralism rejected

3038-441: The store" can be pronounced as a statement or a question ("Mary went to the store." vs. "Mary went to the store?"). The contrast between the statement and the question is signalled by a boundary tone at the end of the phrase: a low boundary tone causes a falling pitch contour, signalling the statement, whereas a high boundary tone causes a rising pitch contour, signalling the question. Break indices are numbers indicating how strong

3100-449: The stressed syllable and the edge tone remains at the end of the phrase. Just as the same contour can apply to different phrases (e.g. (1) and (2)), different contours can apply to the same phrase, as in (2) and (3). In (3) the H* pitch accent is replaced with an L* pitch accent. (1) (2) (3) Pitch accents can be divided into nuclear and prenuclear pitch accents. The nuclear pitch accent

3162-448: The structures that form the "deep grammar" of society originate in the mind and operate in people unconsciously. Lévi-Strauss took inspiration from mathematics . Another concept used in structural anthropology came from the Prague school of linguistics , where Roman Jakobson and others analysed sounds based on the presence or absence of certain features (e.g., voiceless vs. voiced). Lévi-Strauss included this in his conceptualization of

SECTION 50

#1732776580147

3224-410: The study of psychology , though in a different way. Piaget, who would better define himself as constructivist , considered structuralism as "a method and not a doctrine," because, for him, "there exists no structure without a construction, abstract or genetic." Proponents of structuralism argue that a specific domain of culture may be understood by means of a structure that is modelled on language and

3286-417: The superstructure consists of hard infrastructure and institutions. This results in an explanation of how the base impacts the superstructure which then determines transaction costs . Structuralism is less popular today than other approaches, such as post-structuralism and deconstruction . Structuralism has often been criticized for being ahistorical and for favouring deterministic structural forces over

3348-560: The term structuralism first appeared in reference to social sciences . Lévi-Strauss' work in turn gave rise to the structuralist movement in France , also called French structuralism, influencing the thinking of other writers, most of whom disavowed themselves as being a part of this movement. This included such writers as Louis Althusser and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan , as well as the structural Marxism of Nicos Poulantzas . Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida focused on how structuralism could be applied to literature . Accordingly,

3410-470: The terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the 'structuralist' ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas common to the various forms of structuralism: In Ferdinand de Saussure 's Course in General Linguistics , the analysis focuses not on the use of language ( parole , 'speech'), but rather on

3472-408: The tones between a pitch accent and a boundary tone. For example, the intonation at the end of a question might be H*L-H%, indicating that the pitch starts high, falls to a low, and rises again; or L*H-H%, indicating that the pitch starts low, then rises steadily to a high. Boundary tones , written with H% and L%, are affiliated not to words but to phrase edges. For example, the sentence "Mary went to

3534-573: The two-level system over other systems includes data from African tone languages and Swedish. One-syllable words in Efik (an African tone language) can have high, low, or rising tones, which would lead us to expect nine possible tone combinations for two-syllable words. However, we only find H-H, L-L, and L-H tone combinations in two-syllable words. This finding makes sense if we consider the rising tone to consist of an L tone followed by an H tone, making it possible to describe one- and two-syllable words using

3596-541: The underlying system of language ( langue ). This approach examines how the elements of language relate to each other in the present, synchronically rather than diachronically . Saussure argued that linguistic signs were composed of two parts: This differed from previous approaches that focused on the relationship between words and the things in the world that they designate. Although not fully developed by Saussure, other key notions in structural linguistics can be found in structural "idealism." A structural idealism

3658-404: The universal structures of the mind, which he held to operate based on pairs of binary oppositions such as hot-cold, male-female, culture-nature, cooked-raw, or marriageable vs. tabooed women. A third influence came from Marcel Mauss (1872–1950), who had written on gift-exchange systems. Based on Mauss, for instance, Lévi-Strauss argued an alliance theory —that kinship systems are based on

3720-559: The unlikelihood of such quick development of these advanced industries within developing countries. New structural economics is an economic development strategy developed by World Bank Chief Economist Justin Yifu Lin . The strategy combines ideas from both neoclassical economics and structural economics. NSE studies two parts: the base and the superstructure . A base is a combination of forces and relations of production, consisting of, but not limited to, industry and technology, while

3782-403: The wake of existentialism, particularly in the 1960s. The initial popularity of structuralism in France led to its spread across the globe. By the early 1960s, structuralism as a movement was coming into its own and some believed that it offered a single unified approach to human life that would embrace all disciplines. By the late 1960s, many of structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from

SECTION 60

#1732776580147

3844-463: Was seen as a historically important school of thought , but the movements that it spawned, rather than structuralism itself, commanded attention. Several social theorists and academics have strongly criticized structuralism or even dismissed it. French hermeneutic philosopher Paul Ricœur (1969) criticized Lévi-Strauss for overstepping the limits of validity of the structuralist approach, ending up in what Ricœur described as "a Kantianism without

#146853