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46-630: The Toboso were associated with the inhabitants of La Junta de los Rios near Presidio, Texas . However their living further south and more exposed to Spanish slaving raids led to them having a different reaction to Spanish explorers. For example while the Indians at La Junta, often collectively called Jumanos , welcomed Antonio Espejo 's expedition in 1583, the Toboso fled from his expedition in terror. The Toboso began to attack Spanish controlled and Tarahumara inhabited missions and mines to their west in

92-706: A Jumano, re-ignited Spanish interest in La Junta. He appealed to the governor in El Paso to send priests to the area, saying that the Indians wanted to become Christian. Sabeata also asked the Spanish to help the La Junta to defend against the Apache. Four priests and several soldiers were assigned to La Junta, arriving to find that the Indians had already built thatched-roof churches for them. The Spanish appointed Sabeata as governor and La Junta became temporarily prominent as

138-457: A different linguistic and ethnic group. Research on bones and teeth indicates that the La Junta people continued to be dependent on hunting and gathering even after they became settled villagers and adopted agriculture. Researchers were surprised to learn that the peoples received less than 25 percent of their subsistence from maize; the rest came from game and wild foods. This is in contrast to typical agricultural cultures in which people received

184-524: A horse"; most likely these were big alkali sacaton ( Sporobolus wrightii ) and tobosa ( Pleuraphis mutica ) along floodplain or bottomland areas. The United Nations Environment Programme reported in 2006 that nearly half of the bird, mammal, and butterfly species in the Chihuahuan Desert are expected to be replaced by other species by 2055 due to climate change. A 2017 assessment found that 35,905 km (13,863 sq mi), or 7%, of

230-475: A large portion of the state of Chihuahua , along with portions of Coahuila , north-eastern Durango , the extreme northern part of Zacatecas , and small western portions of Nuevo León . With an area of about 501,896 km (193,783 sq mi), it is the largest hot desert in North America . The desert is fairly young, existing for only 8000 years. There are several larger mountain ranges in

276-434: A notable prehistoric Indian civilization of the late 14th century located 200 miles west in present-day Mexico. Its people built complex communities with multi-story buildings and used highly developed irrigation systems to support agriculture. Based on recent research of architectural styles and mortuary practices, scholars believe that the people of La Junta may have been indigenous to the area. Between 1450 and 1500 many of

322-756: A portion of winter precipitation as snowfall most winters. The creosote bush ( Larrea tridentata ) is the dominant plant species on gravelly and occasional sandy soils in valley areas within the Chihuahuan Desert. The other species found with creosote bush depend on factors including the soil type, elevation, and degree of slope. Viscid acacia ( Vachellia vernicosa ), and tarbush ( Flourensia cernua ) dominate northern portions, while broom dalea ( Psorothamnus scoparius ) occurs on sandy soils in western portions. Yucca and Opuntia species are abundant on slopes and uplands in most areas, while Arizona rainbow cactus ( Echinocereus polyacanthus ) and Mexican fire-barrel cactus ( Ferocactus pilosus ) inhabit portions near

368-427: A regional trade center, but Sabeata could not gain Spanish assistance to combat the Apache. When the Indians all over northern Mexico revolted in 1689 to protest the continuing slave trade , the missions in La Junta were closed. The Spanish tried to reestablish a foothold there; a party visited in 1715, when they found the population had declined to 2,100. They did not build a fort and mission until 1760. By this time

414-578: The Mestizo population of Mexico; others merged with the Apache and Comanche; still others departed to work on Spanish haciendas and in silver mines. The Rio Grande and the Conchos River unite near the present-day cities of Presidio, Texas , and Ojinaga, Mexico . The Conchos is more than twice as large as the Rio Grande, but below the confluence the river is known as the Rio Grande. The area

460-468: The Mestizo population; and still others joined their former enemies, the Apache and the Comanche. Chihuahua Desert The Chihuahuan Desert ( Spanish : Desierto de Chihuahua , Desierto Chihuahuense ) is a desert ecoregion designation covering parts of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States . It occupies much of far West Texas , the middle to lower Rio Grande Valley and

506-504: The Osatayogliglas , Guazapayogliglas , Chichitames , and Sisimbles . By 1800 the Toboso who remained in modern Mexico had been essentially absorbed into Hispanic culture. However other Toboso migrated to coastal Texas where they resided in and near Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio from 1807 until at least 1828. These dates are based on baptismal records kept at that mission identifying Toboso present there. Matagorda Island

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552-547: The Pecos and Concho rivers, and traded and wintered in the La Junta region. Cabeza de Vaca described the area as well populated and agricultural, although with little good land. The Indians had not planted corn for the previous two years because of drought. Cabeza De Vaca noted that they put hot stones in gourds to cook their food. They were not described as using pottery; like other nomadic peoples, they found it too heavy to be easily carried. (The Indians did not adopt horses from

598-799: The Sandia–Manzano Mountains , the Magdalena–San Mateo Mountains, and the Gila Region partly border the Chihuahuan Desert and partly border other ecoregions that are not deserts. There are few urban areas within the desert: the largest is Ciudad Juárez with almost two million inhabitants; Chihuahua , Saltillo , and Torreón ; and the US cities of El Paso and Albuquerque . Alamogordo , Alpine , Benson , Carlsbad , Carrizozo , Deming , Fort Stockton , Fort Sumner , Las Cruces , Marfa , Pecos , Roswell , and Willcox are among

644-494: The Sonoran Desert to the west, mostly varying from 480 to 1,800 m (1,575 to 5,906 ft) in elevation, the desert has a slightly milder climate in the summer (though usually daytime June temperatures are in the range of 32 to 40 °C or 90 to 104 °F), with mild to cool winters and occasional to frequent freezes. The hottest temperatures in the desert occur in lower elevation areas and valleys, including near

690-498: The 1640s. Later many of the Toboso were taken to the missions around Monterrey, Mexico . While there they learned Spanish. A large number of the Toboso left the missions and rejected Christianity. The Toboso were classed as "ladinos" Indians by the Spaniards, a term meaning "cunning" and indicating they knew the Spanish way of life and used it to be more effective in fighting the Spanish. The Toboso also made significant raids against

736-468: The Chihuahuan Desert is 235 mm (9.3 in) with a range of approximately 150–400 mm (6–16 in), although it receives more precipitation than most other warm desert ecoregions. Nearly two-thirds of the arid zone stations have annual totals between 225 and 275 mm (8.9 and 10.8 in). Snowfall is scant except at the higher elevation edges. Northern and eastern portions have more definite winters than southern and western portions, receiving

782-992: The Chihuahuan Desert, including the Sierra Madre , the Sierra del Carmen , the Organ Mountains , the Franklin Mountains , the Sacramento Mountains , the Chisos Mountains , the Guadalupe Mountains , and the Davis Mountains . These create " sky islands " of cooler, wetter, climates adjacent to, or within the desert, and such elevated areas have both coniferous and broadleaf woodlands, including forests along drainages and favored exposures. The lower elevations of

828-528: The Jornada Mogollon settlements in western Texas were abandoned, possibly because of drought that made agriculture infeasible. The inhabitants possibly reverted to a hunter-gatherer culture that has left few traces in the archaeological record. The settlements at La Junta apparently survived the drought, although changes in the types of dwellings occurred and distinctive, locally produced pottery became common—or more common. The architectural styles of

874-529: The La Junta Indians had further declined in number. Many of the survivors soon left the area, discouraged by the harshness of Spanish rule, continuing Apache raids, and a new threat from the Comanche , who had moved south from Colorado . Some La Junta Indians were forcibly transported to work in the silver mines of Parral; others intermarried with Spanish soldiers and their descendants became part of

920-472: The La Junta region for thousands of years. Settled village life, with agriculture supplementing traditional hunting and gathering, began by 1200 A.D. Archaeologists suggest that La Junta was settled as an expansion southeastward of the Jornada Mogollon culture and people who lived around present-day El Paso, Texas , 200 miles up the Rio Grande. It may also have been influenced by Casas Grandes ,

966-744: The Rio Grande from south of El Paso into the Big Bend, and the Bolson de Mapimi. A subtropical temperature regime describes lower elevations in the Texas Big Bend region up to the Presidio and Candelaria areas, then southward into similar elevations, while a warm temperate temperature regime describes higher elevations and further north. The average annual temperature in the desert varies from about 13 to 22 °C (55 to 72 °F), depending on elevation and latitude. The mean annual precipitation for

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1012-514: The Spaniards well-tanned deer and buffalo skins. The expeditions' descriptions of La Junta indicated a more settled agricultural people than those described 50 years earlier by Cabeza de Vaca. They wrote that the houses at La Junta resembled those of the Mexicans ... The natives built them square. They put up forked posts and in those they place rounded timbers the thickness of a man's thigh. Then they add stakes and plaster them with mud. Close to

1058-412: The Spanish until the 17th century.) In the 1580s, two small Spanish expeditions, that of Chamuscado and Rodriguez and later Antonio de Espejo , passed through La Junta. They reported that the men were "handsome" and the women "beautiful," although "naked and barbarous people." The Indians lived in low, flat-roofed houses; grew corn, squash and beans; and hunted and fished along the river. They gave

1104-540: The Tarahumara missions and ranches in the 1690s. In the 1680s the Jumano at La Junta were so little aligned with the Toboso that Juan Sabeata was still willing to cooperate with Juan de Retana after Retana spent some time fighting against the Toboso. The Toboso were organized by bands. The number of bands decreased over time. In the 1680s there were 12 bands. As of 1693 the Spanish identified only four Toboso bands,

1150-563: The US–Mexico border. Herbaceous plants , such as bush muhly ( Muhlenbergia porteri ), blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis ), gypsum grama ( B. breviseta ), and hairy grama ( B. hirsuta ), are dominant in desert grasslands and near the mountain edges including the Sierra Madre Occidental. Lechuguilla ( Agave lechuguilla ), honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa ), Opuntia macrocentra and Echinocereus pectinatus are

1196-490: The area's population at more than 10,000. The modern scholar Howard G. Applegate has calculated that the resources were sufficient to support such a population, but others disagree. The population during the year probably varied, as many of the Indians were semi-nomadic. The Spanish referred to the various peoples at La Junta as Amotomancos, Otomoacos, Abriaches, Julimes , and Patarabueyes. They were sometimes collectively called Jumano, although that name may more properly apply to

1242-458: The development of their weapons and shields, warfare between the La Junta Indians and their neighbors seemed common. Spanish explorers described composite bows strengthened with buffalo sinews and "excellent shields" of buffalo hide. Slave raids at La Junta by the Spanish may have begun as early as 1563; at about the same time that Apache Indians began raiding from the north. The Spanish transported captured La Junta Indians to work as laborers in

1288-659: The dominant species in western Coahuila . Ocotillo ( Fouquieria splendens ), lechuguilla, and Yucca filifera are the most common species in the southeastern part of the desert. Candelilla ( Euphorbia antisyphilitica ), Mimosa zygophylla , Acacia glandulifera and lechuguilla are found in areas with well-draining, shallow soils. The shrubs found near the Sierra Madre Oriental are exclusively lechuguilla, guapilla ( Hechtia glomerata ), Queen Victoria's agave ( Agave victoriae-reginae ), sotol ( Dasylirion spp.), and barreta ( Helietta parvifolia ), while

1334-633: The floodplain. Only desert vegetation grows on the terraces. The La Junta Indians lived on the terraces and used the floodplain for agriculture, fishing, hunting, and gathering wild foods. Rugged mountains ring the river valley and terraces. La Junta is near the center of the Chihuahua Desert and receives an average of 10.8 inches (270 mm) of precipitation annually. Lengthy droughts are common. Summers are very hot and winters are mild, although freezes are frequent. The abundant water, plant, and animal life attracted indigenous peoples to

1380-486: The floodplains below their towns, planting in areas moistened by overflow from the rivers or near ephemeral streams. Agriculture under such conditions is risky; the people also depended on gathering wild foods such as mesquite, prickly pears, and agaves. They caught catfish in the rivers. Some of the La Junta Indians journeyed to the Great Plains 150 or more miles northeast to hunt buffalo or trade for buffalo meat with

1426-468: The houses and mortuary practices differ from the Mogollon. Most of the pottery at La Junta from prehistoric times is Jornada Mogollon, but archeologists believe that it was imported by trading rather than locally produced. La Junta eventually produced its own distinct style of pottery, although perhaps not until about 1500 A.D. The La Junta people, although influenced by the Mogollon culture, may have been

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1472-423: The houses they have granaries built of willow ... where they keep their provisions and harvest of mesquite and other things. This type of house is called a jacal . The floors of the houses were usually dug about 18 inches below ground level, which helped protect against temperature extremes. Built on terraces above the river, their towns had populations averaging about 600 people. The people grew crops on

1518-650: The late summer and smaller amounts of precipitation in early winter, the mean daily temperature of the coldest month warmer than 0 °C (32 °F). The majority of rain falls between late June and early October during the North American Monsoon when moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and the Sea of Cortez penetrates into the region, or much less frequently, when a tropical cyclone moves inland and stalls. Owing to its inland position and higher elevation than

1564-724: The lower Pecos Valley in New Mexico , and a portion of southeastern Arizona , as well as the central and northern portions of the Mexican Plateau . It is bordered on the west by the Sonoran Desert , the Colorado Plateau , and the extensive Sierra Madre Occidental range, along with northwestern lowlands of the Sierra Madre Oriental range. Its largest, continual expanse is located in Mexico, covering

1610-447: The majority of nutrition from cultivated crops. Little of their language, or languages, was recorded; scholars have not agreed on the language of the La Junta people. The most common guess is that they spoke Uto-Aztecan , but Kiowa–Tanoan and Athapaskan ( Apache ) have also been suggested. As the La Junta people lived at a crossroads in the desert, they may have been different ethnic groups who spoke multiple languages. For instance,

1656-408: The nomadic Jumano were frequent visitors and trading partners; they may also have been part-time residents of the area and were known to be ethnically distinct from the full-time villagers. Given the limited amount of land suitable for agriculture and the austere environment, scholars estimate a population of 3,000 or 4,000 people at La Junta. But, the Spanish explorer Antonio de Espejo estimated

1702-430: The nomadic buffalo hunters who also frequented La Junta. The Spanish castaway Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca probably passed through or near La Junta in 1535 on his way to a Spanish settlement. He reported encountering "the people of the cows" and said they were "people with the best bodies that we saw and the greatest liveliness." These were likely the Jumano, buffalo-hunting Indians who lived further north and east along

1748-587: The nomadic Jumano. The Spanish found the Rio Grande Valley well-populated north to present-day El Paso, Texas . Beyond there, they encountered no people until the Pueblo settlements fifteen days' travel upriver from El Paso. Above La Junta they encountered peoples later called the Suma and Manso Indians . They seem to have been less agricultural and more nomadic than the people of La Junta. Based on

1794-747: The other communities in this ecoregion. Safford and Benson in Arizona are located in low elevations of the western edges of the Chihuahuan Desert, but in an ecotone with the Sonoran Desert . According to the World Wide Fund for Nature the Chihuahuan Desert may be the most biologically diverse desert in the world as measured by species richness or endemism. The region has been badly degraded, mainly due to grazing. Many native grasses and other species have become dominated by woody native plants, including creosote bush and mesquite, due to overgrazing and other urbanization. The Mexican wolf , once abundant,

1840-539: The region. As a crossroads, the area attracted people of different tribes. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish set up missions in the area and the Native Americans gradually lost their tribal identifications. After suffering severe population losses through infectious disease , the Spanish slave trade , and attacks by raiding Apache and Comanche , the La Junta Indians disappeared. Some intermarried with Spanish soldiers and their descendants became part of

1886-519: The rivers": the Rio Grande and the Conchos River ) on the borders of present-day West Texas and Mexico . In 1535 Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca recorded visiting these peoples while making his way to a Spanish settlement. They cultivated crops in the river floodplains, as well as gathering indigenous plants and catching fish from the rivers. They were part of an extensive trading network in

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1932-467: The silver mines of Parral, Chihuahua . After the Spanish found shorter routes to travel north to their colonies in New Mexico, they bypassed La Junta. It became a quiet backwater of little interest except to slavers and priests. In the 17th century, the accumulated losses due to Eurasian infectious diseases , and Apache and Spanish raids caused the population to diminish. In 1683, Juan Sabeata ,

1978-399: The well-developed herbaceous layer includes grasses, legumes , and cacti. Desert or arid grasslands comprise 20% of this desert and are often mosaics of shrubs and grasses. They include purple three-awn ( Aristida purpurea ), black grama ( Bouteloua eriopoda ), and sideoats grama ( Bouteloua curtipendula ). Early Spanish explorers reported encountering grasses that were "belly high to

2024-443: Was known in the 18th century, at least from 1776 on as Toboso Island and was inhabited by people who had fled Mission Rosario and Mission Espiritu Santo as well as Karakawans . It is possible this name reflected some Tobosos people being among those who lived on the island. La Junta Indians La Junta Indians is a collective name for the various Indians living in the area known as La Junta de los Rios ("the confluence of

2070-475: Was named La Junta by Spanish explorers for the confluence, or junction, of rivers. A mile-wide floodplain extends from La Junta 35 miles upstream to Ruidosa and 18 miles downstream to Redford on the Rio Grande; it extends up the Rio Conchos 30 miles to Cuchillo Parado. The floodplain supports a thick growth of reeds, mesquite, willows, and groves of cottonwood trees. Two terraces rise 20 and 60 feet above

2116-567: Was nearly extinct and remains on the endangered species list. The desert is mainly a rain shadow desert because the two main mountain ranges which bound the desert, the Sierra Madre Occidental to the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental to the east, block most moisture from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, respectively. Climatically, the desert mostly has an arid, mesothermal climate with one rainy season in

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