The Primatial Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo ( Spanish : Catedral Primada Santa María de Toledo ), otherwise known as Toledo Cathedral , is a Catholic church in Toledo, Spain . It is the seat of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Toledo .
135-596: The cathedral of Toledo is one of the three 13th-century High Gothic cathedrals in Spain and is considered, in the opinion of some authorities, to be the magnum opus of the Gothic style in Spain. It was begun in 1226 under the rule of Ferdinand III , and the last Gothic contributions were made in the 15th century when, in 1493, the vaults of the central nave were finished during the time of the Catholic Monarchs . It
270-558: A pejorative description. Giorgio Vasari used the term "barbarous German style" in his 1550 Lives of the Artists to describe what is now considered the Gothic style. In the introduction to the Lives he attributed various architectural features to the Goths whom he held responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered Rome , and erecting new ones in this style. In
405-422: A Gothic choir, and six-part rib vaults over the nave and collateral aisles, alternating pillars and doubled columns to support the vaults, and buttresses to offset the outward thrust from the vaults. One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens , later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in
540-439: A bell in the minaret, following Christian custom to 'cast out the filthiness of the law of Mohammed'. The priest Mariana writes that king Alfonso VI was so irritated by these events that neither the archbishop nor the queen were able to prevent him from ordering the execution of all the active participants. Legend tells that the local Muslim populace itself helped restore peace, with its chief negotiator, faqih Abu Walid, requesting
675-484: A claimant to that title." Below the level of Mujtahid Mutlaq is the Mujtahid Muqayyad or Restricted Jurist-Scholar. A Mujtahid Muqayyad must pass rulings according to the confines of his particular madhhab (school of jurisprudence), or particular area of specialization. This is according to the view that ijtihad or the ability of legal deduction can be achieved in specified areas, and does not require
810-458: A grand cathedral, worthy of the city he governed. When he came to office, the mosque-cathedral had ample space, but with a low roof, making the interior noisy. The cathedral was aged; some sections had been demolished by his predecessor, and the structure lacked the slenderness and height of other religious edifices of similar importance. Ximénez de Rada became the enthusiastic promoter for a new cathedral, to be built in contemporary Gothic style . He
945-416: A ground plan of five naves. This double ambulatory is of grand proportions and is enriched with architectural elements and an original vaulting. The new sections of the chapels were resolved with alternate plans of rectangles and triangles, which allowed for each chapel to be of a different size, rectangular plans being larger and triangular plans smaller. This method of distributing the sanctuary can be seen in
1080-510: A lantern tower, deeply moulded decoration, and high pointed arcades. Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220. Its most distinctive feature is the octagonal lantern on the crossing of the transept, decorated with ornamental ribs, and surrounded by sixteen bays and sixteen lancet windows. Saint-Denis was the work of the Abbot Suger , a close adviser of Kings Louis VI and Louis VII . Suger reconstructed portions of
1215-449: A little wider than the other two. The oldest part of the building is the sanctuary, which maintains in its architecture the original triforia that extended along the length of the naves and were removed in one of the many alterations that the cathedral underwent. Still in the Gothic period, these triforia were replaced with large stained-glass windows. Those triforia that survive in the sanctuary are of Mudéjar influence. The lowest section
1350-498: A new period of Gothic Revival . Gothic architecture survived the early modern period and flourished again in a revival from the late 18th century and throughout the 19th. Perpendicular was the first Gothic style revived in the 18th century. In England, partly in response to a philosophy propounded by the Oxford Movement and others associated with the emerging revival of 'high church' or Anglo-Catholic ideas during
1485-449: A series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic geometrical to the reticulated and the curvilinear – which had superseded the lancet window. Bar-tracery of the curvilinear, flowing , and reticulated types distinguish Second Pointed style. Decorated Gothic similarly sought to emphasize the windows, but excelled in the ornamentation of their tracery. Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–),
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#17327659316141620-462: A triforium, Early English churches usually retained a gallery. High Gothic ( c. 1194 –1250) was a brief but very productive period, which produced some of the great landmarks of Gothic art. The first building in the High Gothic (French: Classique ) was Chartres Cathedral , an important pilgrimage church south of Paris. The Romanesque cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1194, but
1755-482: A violent and bothersome mistake, as suggested by Vasari. Rather, he saw that the Gothic style had developed over time along the lines of a changing society, and that it was thus a legitimate architectural style of its own. It was no secret that Wren strongly disliked the building practices of the Gothic style. When he was appointed Surveyor of the Fabric at Westminster Abbey in the year 1698, he expressed his distaste for
1890-461: Is a prayer in Latin , beginning: Ego Disponente Deo Adefonsus, Esperie imperator, condeco sedi metropolitane, scilicet, Sancte Marie urbis Toletane honorem integrum ut decent abere pontificalem sedem secundum quod preteritis fuit constitutum a sanctis patribus... In English: I, Alfonsus, Emperor of Hesperia by the disposition of God, grant to the metropolitan See, that is, the church of Saint Mary in
2025-407: Is accredited as the first architect. To this argument it must be added that the date of the beginning of construction does not correlate with the age of Petrus Petri who during those years must have been too young to be an architect. Studies released after this discovery indicate that the master Martín would be the designer of the chapels of the ambulatory and upon his departure by death or by absence
2160-581: Is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic . The Palace of Westminster in London by Sir Charles Barry with interiors by a major exponent of the early Gothic Revival, Augustus Welby Pugin , is an example of the Gothic revival style from its earlier period in the second quarter of the 19th century. Examples from the High Victorian Gothic period include George Gilbert Scott 's design for
2295-425: Is made of cusped arches that rest on paired columns and the upper section presents interlaced arches typical of Mudéjar. It is not known if these Mudéjar themes existed in the previous mosque and were copied as a reminder or if they were added in one of the improvements of the stonework, as something original and tasteful. In the sanctuary, one encounters the double ambulatory, which is doubled as would correspond to
2430-857: Is not known for certain. The Portal of the Clock is the oldest of the portals, begun in the 14th century and located in the façade of the north side. In addition, it is also known as: The tympanum is divided into four horizontal panels, in which there are scenes from the life of Christ: the Annunciation , the Nativity , the Adoration of the Magi , the Massacre of the Innocents , the Flight into Egypt ,
2565-471: Is one of the best Hispano-Flemish assemblages of the 15th century, above all the Virgin of the column-mullion and the statues of the jambs. The cherubim and musical angels that accompany the ascension of Mary to the sky are works of art executed with great delicacy. The façade was altered by Durango and Salvatierra, the same as in the other portals, to enhance the appearance of the building. The bronze leaves of
2700-602: Is one of the reasons why Wren's theory is rejected by many. The earliest examples of the pointed arch in Europe date from before the Holy War in the year 1095; this is widely regarded as proof that the Gothic style could not have possibly been derived from Saracen architecture. Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily. The Spanish architecture from
2835-475: Is ornamented with a series of statues with small dossals. The Portal of the Presentation is from the time of Cardinal Tavera; it is richly carved with imagery of miniatures in good quality, very white stone. The original plan was to build two symmetric towers on each side of the west façade, but when the one at the northern corner was raised, it was discovered that the ground beneath the site planned for
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#17327659316142970-505: Is possible that it appeared very much like the Church of the Savior of Toledo, previously a mosque. King Alfonso VI made important donations to the new church. On 18 December 1086, the cathedral was placed under the advocacy of María and it was granted villas, hamlets, mills and one third of the revenues of all the rest of the churches of the city. The first royal privilege that is preserved
3105-493: Is sometimes referred to as a Mujtahid Mutlaq or Unrestricted Jurist-Scholar, while one who has not reached that level generally will have mastered the methodology ( usul ) used by one or more of the prominent madhhab and will be able to apply this methodology to arrive at the traditional legal rulings of his/her respective madhhab. According to the Sunni Muslim website Living Islam, "There is no mujtahid mutlaq today nor even
3240-506: Is the pointed arch . The use of the pointed arch in turn led to the development of the pointed rib vault and flying buttresses , combined with elaborate tracery and stained glass windows. At the Abbey of Saint-Denis , near Paris, the choir was reconstructed between 1140 and 1144, drawing together for the first time the developing Gothic architectural features. In doing so, a new architectural style emerged that emphasized verticality and
3375-453: Is the only entrance to the cathedral that is level with the ground, without steps, so giving it its name. It was customary for processions to exit through this portal. The Façade of Saint Katherine is of late Gothic style. Its archivolts are carved with vegetal motifs of leaves and foliage. The pillar that makes the mullion is splendidly carved on its side faces, with castles and lions. In its interior, it has two sections. The higher section
3510-469: Is the rose window of the 13th century that contains the oldest stained glass of the cathedral. The Portal of the Lions was built in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is the most modern of the great portals. It is so named because of the lions that surmount the columns of the gate that encloses the small entranceway. In addition, it has two other names: It was constructed between the years 1460 and 1466, under
3645-519: Is why he constantly praised the classic architecture of 'the Ancients' in his writings. Even though he openly expressed his distaste for the Gothic style, Wren did not blame the Saracens for the apparent lack of ingenuity. Quite the opposite: he praised the Saracens for their 'superior' vaulting techniques and their widespread use of the pointed arch. Wren claimed the inventors of the Gothic had seen
3780-489: The Albert Memorial in London, and William Butterfield 's chapel at Keble College, Oxford . From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types. Gothic details even began to appear in working-class housing schemes subsidised by philanthropy, though given the expense, less frequently than in
3915-651: The Byzantine , of course belong more to the Gothic period than the light and elegant structures of the pointed order which succeeded them. The Gothic style of architecture was strongly influenced by the Romanesque architecture which preceded it; by the growing population and wealth of European cities, and by the desire to express local grandeur. It was influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows. It
4050-592: The Chateau of Gaillon near Rouen (1502–1510) with the assistance of Italian craftsmen. The Château de Blois (1515–1524) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway. King Francois I installed Leonardo da Vinci at his Chateau of Chambord in 1516, and introduced a Renaissance long gallery at the Palace of Fontainebleau in 1528–1540. In 1546 Francois I began building the first example of French classicism,
4185-792: The Circumcision of Jesus , the Finding in the Temple , the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple , the Baptism and the Marriage at Cana . In the upper part of the tympanum, the Death of the Virgin is depicted. The column-mullion is decorated with an image of the Virgin and Child. In the jambs are images of kings and saints, all of which are the work of the sculptor Juan Alemán who also worked on
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4320-575: The Pantheon, Rome , was one of the first Renaissance landmarks, but it also employed Gothic technology; the outer skin of the dome was supported by a framework of twenty-four ribs. In the 16th century, as Renaissance architecture from Italy began to appear in France and other countries in Europe. The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric. The term "Gothic" was first used as
4455-522: The Vitruvian architectural vocabulary of classical orders revived in the Renaissance and seen as evidence of a new Golden Age of learning and refinement. Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication. The assumption that classical architecture was better than Gothic architecture
4590-693: The rib vault , had appeared in England, Sicily and Normandy in the 11th century. Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098). However, the first buildings to be considered fully Gothic are the royal funerary abbey of the French kings, the Abbey of Saint-Denis (1135–1144), and the archiepiscopal cathedral at Sens (1135–1164). They were
4725-424: The 1250s, Louis IX commissioned the rebuilt transepts and enormous rose windows of Notre-Dame de Paris (1250s for the north transept, 1258 for the beginning of south transept). This first 'international style' was also used in the clerestory of Metz Cathedral ( c . 1245–), then in the choir of Cologne 's cathedral ( c . 1250–), and again in the nave of the cathedral at Strasbourg ( c . 1250–). Masons elaborated
4860-528: The 13th century, while Rodrigo Ximénez de Rada was archbishop of Toledo and during the reign of a young Ferdinand III of Castile. Commencement of the work was delayed until the king could be present at the official ceremonial cornerstone-laying (1227). Ximénez de Rada was elected bishop of Toledo in 1209, and thenceforth he defended the primacy of the Toledan See before the Papal authority. He aimed to build
4995-539: The 13th century; by 1300, a first "international style" of Gothic had developed, with common design features and formal language. A second "international style" emerged by 1400, alongside innovations in England and central Europe that produced both the perpendicular and flamboyant varieties. Typically, these typologies are identified as: Norman architecture on either side of the English Channel developed in parallel towards Early Gothic . Gothic features, such as
5130-532: The 17th and 18th centuries, especially in provincial and ecclesiastical contexts, notably at Oxford . Beginning in the mid-15th century, the Gothic style gradually lost its dominance in Europe. It had never been popular in Italy, and in the mid-15th century the Italians, drawing upon ancient Roman ruins, returned to classical models. The dome of Florence Cathedral (1420–1436) by Filippo Brunelleschi , inspired by
5265-509: The 17th and 18th century several important Gothic buildings were constructed at Oxford University and Cambridge University , including Tom Tower (1681–82) at Christ Church, Oxford , by Christopher Wren . It also appeared, in a whimsical fashion, in Horace Walpole 's Twickenham villa , Strawberry Hill (1749–1776). The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor , opening
5400-431: The 17th century, Molière also mocked the Gothic style in the 1669 poem La Gloire : "...the insipid taste of Gothic ornamentation, these odious monstrosities of an ignorant age, produced by the torrents of barbarism..." The dominant styles in Europe became in turn Italian Renaissance architecture , Baroque architecture , and the grand classicism of the style Louis XIV . The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of
5535-420: The 20th century. Medieval contemporaries described the style as Latin : opus Francigenum , lit. 'French work' or ' Frankish work', as opus modernum , 'modern work', novum opus , 'new work', or as Italian : maniera tedesca , lit. 'German style'. The term "Gothic architecture" originated as a pejorative description. Giorgio Vasari used
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5670-640: The Air and Weather; the Coping, which cannot defend them, first failing, and if they give Way, the Vault must spread. Pinnacles are no Use, and as little Ornament. The chaos of the Gothic left much to be desired in Wren's eyes. His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so. Wren much preferred symmetry and straight lines in architecture, which
5805-466: The Christian presence and the bishopric remained established in the church of Saint Mary of Alfizén. The Visigothic church was torn down and the main mosque of the city of Toledo was erected in its place. Some investigators point out that the prayer hall of the mosque corresponds with the layout of the five naves of the current cathedral; the sahn would coincide with part of the current cloister and
5940-494: The French cathedrals of Paris , Bourges and Le Mans , the last cathedral being the most similar in appearance, although the three are more slender in aspect than the Spanish cathedral. The various reforms that were made over time altered the arrangement of some of the chapels; for example, in one case just one chapel was reconstructed in the former space of three. The vaults of the naves are quadripartite except for those of
6075-644: The Gothic style in a letter to the bishop of Rochester: Nothing was thought magnificent that was not high beyond Measure, with the Flutter of Arch-buttresses, so we call the sloping Arches that poise the higher Vaultings of the Nave. The Romans always concealed their Butments, whereas the Normans thought them ornamental. These I have observed are the first Things that occasion the Ruin of Cathedrals, being so much exposed to
6210-642: The Greeks. Wren was the first to popularize the belief that it was not the Europeans, but the Saracens that had created the Gothic style. The term 'Saracen' was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslims, including the Arabs and Berbers. Wren mentions Europe's architectural debt to the Saracens no fewer than twelve times in his writings. He also decidedly broke with tradition in his assumption that Gothic architecture did not merely represent
6345-798: The Islamic prophet Muhammad ). Sharia is expanded and developed by interpretation ( ijtihad ) of the Quran and sunnah by Islamic jurists ( ulama ) and implemented by the rulings ( fatwas ) of jurists on questions presented to them. Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam. In the modern era there are four prominent schools ( madhhab ) of fiqh within Sunni practice and two (or three) within Shia practice. The historian Ibn Khaldun describes fiqh as "knowledge of
6480-472: The Last Judgment, to the right) and Puerta del Infierno (Portal of Hell , to the left). The Portal of Forgiveness belongs to the 15th century—it was begun under the direction of Alvar Martínez in 1418. It is so called because indulgences were granted to penitents who entered through it. These days it is always closed and is used only on special occasions and upon the investiture of new archbishops of
6615-548: The Moors could have favoured the emergence of the Gothic style long before the Crusades took place. This could have happened gradually through merchants, travelers and pilgrims. According to a 19th-century correspondent in the London journal Notes and Queries , Gothic was a derisive misnomer; the pointed arcs and architecture of the later Middle Ages was quite different from the rounded arches prevalent in late antiquity and
6750-467: The Mozarabic chapel which was commissioned by Cardinal Cisneros. The tower has two parts: the lower part, of square cross-section, was designed by Alvar Martínez; the upper, octagonal part was designed by Hanequin de Bruselas. It is topped by a spire. The main façade has three portals, known as, respectively, Puerta del Perdón (Portal of Forgiveness, in the centre), Puerta del Juicio Final (Portal of
6885-468: The Muslim construction tradition of Cordova . The city of Toledo was reconquered by Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile , in 1085. One of the points of the Muslim capitulation that made possible the transfer of the city without bloodshed was the king's promise to conserve and respect their institutions of higher learning, as well as the customs and religion of the Muslim population which had coexisted with
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#17327659316147020-458: The Olihuelas limestone quarries at the boundary of Olías del Rey. He is the designer of the west façade whose construction was begun in 1418. Changes made in 1787 obscure the original appearance of this façade. He was also the designer of the only tower of the cathedral, which was built during the office of Archbishop Juan Martínez de Contreras, whose coat of arms appears in the frieze that crowns
7155-514: The Palms as it used to be reserved as an entrance for the procession of the palms on Palm Sunday . The façade was modified in 1787 by the architect Eugenio Durango under the orders of Cardinal Lorenzana. The sculptor was Mariano Salvatierra. The work was necessary because of the deterioration of the stone, which was not of good quality. It is possible that the portals were to be moved forward between buttresses instead of their current position, but this
7290-464: The Portal of the Lions. Above this portal is found the later sculpting of Gregorio López Durango, whose work is also seen on the main façade. It is consolidation work that was needed because of the deteriorated state of the stone. The central intercolumniation above the portal is occupied by the face of the clock that gives it its name. The portal and its surrounding stonework form an appealing space with
7425-831: The Saracen architecture during the Crusades , also called the Religious war or Holy War, organised by the Kingdom of France in the year 1095: The Holy War gave the Christians, who had been there, an Idea of the Saracen Works, which were afterwards by them imitated in the West; and they refined upon it every day, as they proceeded in building Churches. There are several chronological issues that arise with this statement, which
7560-578: The Toledan Renaissance reached its height of splendor. Under his governance, the choir of Alonso Berruguete and Felipe Vigarny, the interior façades of the transept, the chapel of Saint John or of the Treasure and other façades and adornments were constructed. During Archbishop Juan Martínez Siliceo's time in office, the cathedral was adorned with the screen of the main chapel, the work of Francisco de Villalpando. Cardinal Gaspar de Quiroga
7695-399: The absence of the king, undertook an unfortunate action which, as told by the priest Mariana in his General History of Spain , almost provoked a Muslim uprising and consequent ruin of the recently conquered city. On 25 October 1087, the archbishop in cooperation with Queen Constance sent an armed contingent to seize the mosque by force. They proceeded to install a provisional altar and hung
7830-450: The ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade. Sens was quickly followed by Senlis Cathedral (begun 1160), and Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1160). Their builders abandoned the traditional plans and introduced the new Gothic elements from Saint-Denis. The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside
7965-477: The architect Nicolás de Vergara in the 17th century. The main façade faces an irregular square containing the town hall and the Archbishop's Palace. To the left is the bell tower and to the right the projecting Mozarabic chapel that occupies the place where the second tower was to be built. To the left of the main façade rises the only tower of the cathedral. The dome that is seen to the right belongs to
8100-523: The brothers William and Robert Vertue 's Henry VII Chapel ( c. 1503 –1512) at Westminster Abbey . Perpendicular is sometimes called Third Pointed and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640. Lacey patterns of tracery continued to characterize continental Gothic building, with very elaborate and articulated vaulting, as at Saint Barbara's, Kutná Hora (1512). In certain areas, Gothic architecture continued to be employed until
8235-699: The capital of the medieval kingdom of Armenia concluded to have discovered the oldest Gothic arch. According to these historians, the architecture of the Saint Hripsime Church near the Armenian religious seat Etchmiadzin was built in the fourth century A.D. and was repaired in 618. The cathedral of Ani was built in 980–1012 A.D. However many of the elements of Islamic and Armenian architecture that have been cited as influences on Gothic architecture also appeared in Late Roman and Byzantine architecture,
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#17327659316148370-428: The cathedral at Metz ( c .1235–). In High Gothic, the whole surface of the clerestory was given over to windows. At Chartres Cathedral, plate tracery was used for the rose window, but at Reims the bar-tracery was free-standing. Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by geometrical bar-tracery. Tracery of this kind distinguishes Middle Pointed style from the simpler First Pointed . Inside,
8505-507: The cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral ( c .1320–). The Rayonnant developed its second 'international style' with increasingly autonomous and sharp-edged tracery mouldings apparent in the cathedral at Clermont-Ferrand (1248–), the papal collegiate church at Troyes , Saint-Urbain (1262–), and the west façade of Strasbourg Cathedral (1276–1439)). By 1300, there were examples influenced by Strasbourg in
8640-458: The cathedrals of Limoges (1273–), Regensburg ( c . 1275–), and in the cathedral nave at York (1292–). Central Europe began to lead the emergence of a new, international flamboyant style with the construction of a new cathedral at Prague (1344–) under the direction of Peter Parler . This model of rich and variegated tracery and intricate reticulated rib-vaulting was definitive in the Late Gothic of continental Europe, emulated not only by
8775-409: The chapel of Saint Peter and the minaret with the belltower. Using certain archeological data it is possible to discern an Islamic column mounted inside the chapel of Saint Lucy; the marble shafts that decorate the exterior of the choir are an improvement of an old Muslim construction, and the intertwined arches of caliphate style in the triforium of the main chapel and of the ambulatory coincide with
8910-560: The church of Saint Mary of Toledo, whose fame was propagated by his good examples and customs, who constructed this temple and rests here, for what an admirable building he made, he will not feel the wrath of God. Towards the middle of the 20th century, the bishop of Ciudad Real thoroughly investigated this claim and brought to light a series of documents which demonstrated the existence of a first master prior to Petrus Petri called Master Martín, married to María Gómez and certainly of French origin, who had been summoned by Ximénez de Rada. One of
9045-419: The city of Toledo, the complete honour that she should have the pontifical see according to what before was constituted by the holy fathers… Pope Urban II recognised this church in 1088 as the primatial cathedral over the rest of the kingdom. The mosque-cathedral remained intact until the 13th century, when in the year 1222 a Papal bull issued by the Pope authorised the construction of a new cathedral which
9180-495: The classical columns he had seen in Rome. In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the façade. These also became a common feature of Gothic cathedrals. Some elements of Gothic style appeared very early in England. Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104. The first cathedral built entirely in the new style was Sens Cathedral , begun between 1135 and 1140 and consecrated in 1160. Sens Cathedral features
9315-552: The cloisters and chapter-house ( c. 1332 ) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey . The chancel of Gloucester Cathedral ( c. 1337 –1357) and its latter 14th century cloisters are early examples. Four-centred arches were often used, and lierne vaults seen in early buildings were developed into fan vaults, first at the latter 14th century chapter-house of Hereford Cathedral (demolished 1769) and cloisters at Gloucester, and then at Reginald Ely 's King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1461) and
9450-439: The collegiate churches and cathedrals, but by urban parish churches which rivalled them in size and magnificence. The minster at Ulm and other parish churches like the Heilig-Kreuz-Münster at Schwäbisch Gmünd ( c .1320–), St Barbara's Church at Kutná Hora (1389–), and the Heilig-Geist-Kirche (1407–) and St Martin's Church ( c .1385–) in Landshut are typical. Use of ogees was especially common. The flamboyant style
9585-660: The competition. Work began that same year, but in 1178 William was badly injured by falling from the scaffolding, and returned to France, where he died. His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178. The resulting structure of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral is considered the first work of Early English Gothic . The cathedral churches of Worcester (1175–), Wells ( c .1180–), Lincoln (1192–), and Salisbury (1220–) are all, with Canterbury, major examples. Tiercerons – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed c .1200. Instead of
9720-591: The coverage of stained glass windows such that the walls are effectively entirely glazed; examples are the nave of Saint-Denis (1231–) and the royal chapel of Louis IX of France on the Île de la Cité in the Seine – the Sainte-Chapelle ( c .1241–1248). The high and thin walls of French Rayonnant Gothic allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork. Shortly after Saint-Denis, in
9855-487: The design of upper and middle-class housing. Faqih A faqīh ( pl. : fuqahāʾ , Arabic : فقيه ; pl. : فقهاء ) is an Islamic jurist, an expert in fiqh , or Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic law . Islamic jurisprudence or fiqh is the human understanding of Sharia , which is believed by Muslims to represent divine law as revealed in the Quran and sunnah (the practices of
9990-414: The development of Renaissance architecture in Italy during the mid-15th century, the Gothic style was supplanted by the new style, but in some regions, notably England and Belgium, Gothic continued to flourish and develop into the 16th century. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th century England , spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for churches and university buildings, into
10125-529: The documents is dated to 1227 and names "a master Martín of the work of Saint Mary of Toledo". Another document lists income collected by the cathedral in 1234 and records again the name of "Master Martín of the work", of whom it is also written that he was a tenant of a house associated with the cathedral. In later writings there appear the names of Martín ( stonemason ) and Juan Martín (master of stonemasons), who are believed to be relatives of each other. No new documents have appeared, so at present this master Martín
10260-403: The doors are the work of Francisco de Villalpando, who created a masterpiece on the 35 panels or plates. They are hidden from view, protected with wood panels. On top is the great Rose Window of polychromatic stained glass. The interior of the portal corresponds to the great façade of the transept on its southern side, on top of which rests the small balcony with balustrade that corresponds to
10395-575: The doors measure more than five meters in height and are covered by elaborately fashioned bronze plates, which date to the 14th century. The Portal of the Last Judgement is the oldest of the three, and represents, as its name suggests, the Last Judgment. The Portal of Hell , in contrast, does not contain figurative motifs, only floral decoration. It is also known as the Portal of the Tower or of
10530-549: The east end of the church, which typically had a half-dome. The lantern tower was another common feature in Norman Gothic. One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–1070) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style. Lisieux Cathedral was begun in 1170. Rouen Cathedral (begun 1185) was rebuilt from Romanesque to Gothic with distinct Norman features, including
10665-557: The effect created by the transmission of light through stained glass windows. Common examples are found in Christian ecclesiastical architecture , and Gothic cathedrals and churches , as well as abbeys , and parish churches . It is also the architecture of many castles , palaces , town halls , guildhalls , universities and, less prominently today, private dwellings. Many of the finest examples of medieval Gothic architecture are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites . With
10800-585: The entranceway enclosed by a Gothic screen; this is the work of Juan Francés, with very plain crosspieces, a small, carved frieze with a separation in the center, and a simple and harmonious design. Interior Inside are diverse medallions; the best are those of the Virgin of the Annunciation by Nicolás de Vergara el Mozo and of the Archangel Saint Gabriel by Juan Bautista Vázquez. It is also adorned with paintings and coats of arms. Above
10935-534: The façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel 's abbey church (1448). In England, ornamental rib-vaulting and tracery of Decorated Gothic co-existed with, and then gave way to, the perpendicular style from the 1320s, with straightened, orthogonal tracery topped with fan-vaulting . Perpendicular Gothic was unknown in continental Europe and unlike earlier styles had no equivalent in Scotland or Ireland. It first appeared in
11070-526: The first buildings to systematically combine rib vaulting, buttresses, and pointed arches. Most of the characteristics of later Early English were already present in the lower chevet of Saint-Denis. The Duchy of Normandy , part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic. One of these was the Norman chevet , a small apse or chapel attached to the choir at
11205-514: The first section. The crowning of the tower was done by another great master sculptor, the Fleming Hanequin de Bruselas, who moulded the coat of arms of the succeeding archbishop Juan de Cerezuela. With Hanequin came a group of illustrious masters: Egas Cueman (de Bruselas' brother) , Enrique Egas, and Juan Guas; these worked on façades, chapels, and sumptuary works, completing the work done in the Gothic idiom with their labor. The vaults at
11340-410: The footing of the central nave were closed in 1493, under the direction of Juan Guas and Enrique Egas, with the patronage and supervision of Cardinal Mendoza . During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, various modifications were made to the cathedral according to the new styles: architectural works including magnificent portals and chapels, and sumptuous works of sculpture and painting. The 16th century
11475-530: The former mosque have not been preserved nor is the appearance of the structure known, but taking into account the preserved vestiges of mosques in other Spanish cities (in Seville , Jaén , Granada , Málaga , and the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba ), it may be supposed that it was a columnary building, with horseshoe arcades on top of columns in revision of earlier Roman and Visigothic construction. It
11610-503: The front and back side of the façade. The new High Gothic churches competed to be the tallest, with increasingly ambitious structures lifting the vault yet higher. Chartres Cathedral's height of 38 m (125 ft) was exceeded by Beauvais Cathedral's 48 m (157 ft), but on account of the latter's collapse in 1248, no further attempt was made to build higher. Attention turned from achieving greater height to creating more awe-inspiring decoration. Rayonnant Gothic maximized
11745-558: The king to show mercy, and imploring his fellow townsmen to accept the Christian usurpation as legitimate. In gratitude for this gesture, the Cathedral Chapter dedicated a homage to Walid and ordered his effigy to be placed on one of the pillars in the main chapel, in this way perpetuating his memory. Thus the conversion of the Toledan mosque was upheld and it remained consecrated as a Christian cathedral. The building plans of
11880-427: The larger Mozarabic population. Naturally, the preservation of the main mosque was integral to this compromise. Shortly thereafter, the king had to depart on matters of state, leaving the city in charge of his wife Constance and the abbot of the monastery of Sahagún , Bernard of Sedirac (or Bernard of Cluny), who had been elevated to the rank of archbishop of Toledo. These two, in mutual accord and taking advantage of
12015-421: The left holds the remains of Canon Alfonso de Rojas, represented in a praying statue. The bronze reja (metalwork screen) was made a century after the great screens of the main chapel and of the choir, in a style completely different from these, valuing solidity and utility more than the taste for ornamentation of the previous century. Its designer was Juan Álvarez de Molina, a native of Úbeda ( Jaén ), who made
12150-592: The library. He was followed by Guillermo de Croy , the Chief of the Spanish treasury ( contador mayor ), who never resided in Toledo. Alfonso de Fonseca y Acevedo (who had been archbishop of Santiago de Compostela ) was the promoter of the New Kings chapel, which was planned by the architect Alonso de Covarrubias. Paintings by Mariano Salvador Maella were added in the 18th century. With the ascent of Bishop Juan Tavera,
12285-515: The mandate of Archbishop Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña, with designs from Hanequin of Brussels , also known as Anequín de Egas Cueman, and Enrique de Egas Cueman, his son, in collaboration with the Flemish sculptors Pedro and Juan Guas and Juan Alemán, designer of the Apostolate. These artists supervised a large workshop that included prestigious stonemasons and carvers. The statuary of this portal
12420-544: The most noticeable example being the pointed arch and flying buttress. The most notable example is the capitals, which are forerunners of the Gothic style and deviated from the Classical standards of ancient Greece and Rome with serpentine lines and naturalistic forms. Architecture "became a leading form of artistic expression during the late Middle Ages". Gothic architecture began in the earlier 12th century in northwest France and England and spread throughout Latin Europe in
12555-447: The nave was divided into by regular bays, each covered by a quadripartite rib vaults. Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the façade and the fronts of the transept. Reims Cathedral had two thousand three hundred statues on
12690-442: The new Gothic style. Sens Cathedral was influential in its strongly vertical appearance and in its three-part elevation, typical of subsequent Gothic buildings, with a clerestory at the top supported by a triforium , all carried on high arcades of pointed arches. In the following decades flying buttresses began to be used, allowing the construction of lighter, higher walls. French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by
12825-412: The new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa. They brought back Italian paintings, sculpture and building plans, and, more importantly, Italian craftsmen and artists. The Cardinal Georges d'Amboise , chief minister of Louis XII, built
12960-536: The new palace begun by Emperor Charles V in Granada, within the Alhambra (1485–1550), inspired by Bramante and Raphael, but it was never completed. The first major Renaissance work in Spain was El Escorial , the monastery-palace built by Philip II of Spain . Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I , England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent. The first classical building in England
13095-490: The new style were Burghley House (1550s–1580s) and Longleat , built by associates of Somerset. With those buildings, a new age of architecture began in England. Gothic architecture, usually churches or university buildings, continued to be built. Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral ( c. 1730 ), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples. In
13230-425: The old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows. He described the new ambulatory as "a circular ring of chapels, by virtue of which the whole church would shine with the wonderful and uninterrupted light of most luminous windows, pervading the interior beauty." To support the vaults he also introduced columns with capitals of carved vegetal designs, modelled upon
13365-501: The old mediaeval style, which they termed Gothic, as synonymous with every thing that was barbarous and rude, it may be sufficient to refer to the celebrated Treatise of Sir Henry Wotton , entitled The Elements of Architecture , ... printed in London so early as 1624. ... But it was a strange misapplication of the term to use it for the pointed style, in contradistinction to the circular, formerly called Saxon, now Norman, Romanesque, &c. These latter styles, like Lombardic , Italian, and
13500-597: The others, continued to use six-part rib vaults); and Beauvais Cathedral (1225–). In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire , first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier 's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the Reich , beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and
13635-404: The patronage of Archbishop Pedro Tenorio , who died ten years later. The archbishop occupied himself with many works of the cathedral, such as the chapel of Saint Blaise in the cloister which is famous for the artistic richness of its frescos from the school of Siena . The next master of whom there is information was Alvar Martínez (in some sources called González), who was quantity surveyor of
13770-634: The period of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy: There can be no doubt that the term 'Gothic' as applied to pointed styles of ecclesiastical architecture was used at first contemptuously, and in derision, by those who were ambitious to imitate and revive the Grecian orders of architecture, after the revival of classical literature. But, without citing many authorities, such as Christopher Wren , and others, who lent their aid in depreciating
13905-416: The presbytery. In the first decade of the 16th century, the cenotaph was built in Renaissance style. This work is attributed to a team working under the leadership of Domenico Fancelli, although some authorities attribute it to Andrea Sansovino. Cardinal Cisneros occupied the cardinalate office for twenty-two years; under his influence and sponsorship important works were done (perhaps the most important
14040-471: The primatial cathedral. It has one great arch with six Gothic archivolts . The decoration consists of typical Gothic iconography, with the figure of the Saviour in the mullion and an apostolates in the jambs . In the tympanum , the Virgin gives the chasuble to Saint Ildephonsus , a particularly special theme for the cathedral which is repeated in the interior in the chapels and paintings. The leaves of
14175-500: The rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves bound to obey the law respecting what is required ( wajib ), sinful ( haram ), recommended ( mandub ), disapproved ( makruh ) or neutral ( mubah )". This definition is consistent amongst the jurists. Methods of derivation are laid out in the books of usul al-fiqh (principles of fiqh), and the types of evidence which are deemed valid for deriving rulings from are many in number. Four of them are agreed upon by
14310-635: The same weight as the Quran and sunnah , this is not accepted by Sunni jurists. A faqih is one who has fulfilled the conditions for ijtihad either in their entirety or piecemeal. In the Sunni view it is generally held that there are no or very few jurists that have reached the level of Mujtahid Mutlaq (see below) in our day and age. In the Twelver Shia view, each of the Marja' have reached this level. The faqih who fulfills all conditions of ijtihad
14445-425: The screen in the city of Toledo in 1647. The documents preserved in regard to this say that the master metalsmith received 8,504 reales and 12 maravedís, in addition to the 27,000 reales that had been given to him earlier. The document gives account of the cost of the metal employed, which was nearly as much as the total payment he received for the work. The Level Portal is of Neo-Classical style, built in 1800. It
14580-437: The second quarter of the 19th century, neo-Gothic began to become promoted by influential establishment figures as the preferred style for ecclesiastical, civic and institutional architecture. The appeal of this Gothic revival (which after 1837, in Britain, is sometimes termed Victorian Gothic ), gradually widened to encompass "low church" as well as "high church" clients. This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885,
14715-473: The southern tower was unstable due to an underground water stream. Even so, the Mozarabic chapel was later built there. Gothic architecture Gothic architecture is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages , surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and
14850-763: The square courtyard of the Louvre Palace designed by Pierre Lescot . Nonetheless, new Gothic buildings, particularly churches, continued to be built. New Gothic churches built in Paris in this period included Saint-Merri (1520–1552) and Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois . The first signs of classicism in Paris churches did not appear until 1540, at Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais . The largest new church, Saint-Eustache (1532–1560), rivalled Notre-Dame in size, 105 m (344 ft) long, 44 m (144 ft) wide, and 35 m (115 ft) high. As construction of this church continued, elements of Renaissance decoration, including
14985-477: The story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows. The model of Chartres was followed by a series of new cathedrals of unprecedented height and size. These were Reims Cathedral (begun 1211), where coronations of the kings of France took place; Amiens Cathedral (1220–1226); Bourges Cathedral (1195–1230) (which, unlike
15120-609: The structural achievements of the ambulatory vaults are some of its more remarkable aspects. It is built with white limestone from the quarries of Olihuelas, near Toledo. It is popularly known as Dives Toletana (meaning The Rich Toledan in Latin). The Mozarabic Chapel in the Cathedral of Toledo still uses the Hispano-Mozarabic Rite and music. For many years, an unwritten popular tradition has held that there
15255-407: The supervision of the work was taken up by master Petrus who finished the ambulatories and constructed the triforia in Toledan style. Towards the end of the 20th century, the sanctuary and two sections of the naves of the south side were completed. Near the end of the 14th century the existence of a master Rodrigo Alfonso is apparently documented; he laid the first stone of the cloister in 1389, under
15390-629: The system of classical orders of columns, were added to the design, making it a Gothic-Renaissance hybrid. In Germany, some Italian elements were introduced at the Fugger Chapel of St. Anne's Church, Augsburg , (1510–1512) combined with Gothic vaults; and others appeared in the Church of St. Michael in Munich, but in Germany Renaissance elements were used primarily for decoration. Some Renaissance elements also appeared in Spain, in
15525-412: The term "barbarous German style" in his Lives of the Artists to describe what is now considered the Gothic style, and in the introduction to the Lives he attributes various architectural features to the Goths , whom he held responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered Rome, and erecting new ones in this style. When Vasari wrote, Italy had experienced a century of building in
15660-436: The transept and the chancel which are reinforced with tiercerons . For centuries it was held with complete certainty that the first master architect of the cathedral of Toledo was Petrus Petri (Spanish: Pedro Pérez ). Such certainty was based on the only existing testimony regarding the authorship, a legend inscribed in vulgar Latin still visible on a tombstone: English translation: Petrus Petri, deceased in 1291, master of
15795-462: The tribune where the organ of the Emperor is located. Higher up is the rose window, surrounded by a frame with its pendentives decorated with rosettes. In the lower part of the great façade is the portal divided by a column- mullion . Above the doors are the tympanum sculpted with themes of the genealogy of the Virgin whose designers were the same who worked on the exterior of this portal. On top of
15930-505: The tympanum is the plateresque carving with a great medallion of the Coronation of the Virgin in the center, the work of Gregorio Pardo (eldest son of Felipe Vigarny). On both sides are the statues of David and Solomon , attributed to Esteban Jamete. To the right and left of this front are two sepulchres. The one on the right is empty (it is believed that it was prepared to receive the remains of Brother Bartolomé Carranza ); that of
16065-575: The vast majority of jurists. They are: These four types of evidence are seen as acceptable by the vast majority of jurists from both the schools of Sunni jurists (the Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , and Hanbali and sometimes the Zahiriyah ), as well as Shia jurists. However, Zahiriyah or Literalists do not see qiyas as valid. While Twelver Shia see edicts of the Twelve Imams as holding
16200-441: The walls connected by arches to the upper walls. The buttresses counterbalanced the outward thrust from the rib vaults. This allowed the builders to construct higher, thinner walls and larger windows. Following the destruction by fire of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, a group of master builders was invited to propose plans for the reconstruction. The master-builder William of Sens , who had worked on Sens Cathedral, won
16335-407: Was also influenced by the necessity of many churches, such as Chartres Cathedral and Canterbury Cathedral , to accommodate growing numbers of pilgrims. It adapted features from earlier styles. According to Charles Texier (French historian, architect, and archaeologist) and Josef Strzygowski (Polish-Austrian art historian), after lengthy research and study of cathedrals in the medieval city of Ani ,
16470-458: Was begun in 1224 (or 1225). The official ceremony of the laying of the foundation stone took place in 1226 (other sources say 1227), with the presence of King Ferdinand the Saint . Throughout the 13th century the cathedral's income tax was raised through the previous incorporation of Alcalá de Henares into its archiepiscopal territories in 1129. The layout of the cathedral as now seen was set in
16605-448: Was characterised by the multiplication of the ribs of the vaults, with new purely decorative ribs, called tiercons and liernes, and additional diagonal ribs. One common ornament of flamboyant in France is the arc-en-accolade , an arch over a window topped by a pinnacle, which was itself topped with fleuron , and flanked by other pinnacles. Examples of French flamboyant building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral , and especially
16740-445: Was consecrated as Catholic, the first day of the ides of April, in the joyful first year of the reign of our most glorious king Flavius Reccared, Era 625 [13 of April of 587]. The city had been the episcopal seat of Visigothic Spain. The numerous Councils of Toledo attest to its important ecclesiastical past. Also, the abjuration of Arianism on the part of Reccared occurred there. The Muslim invasion did not immediately eliminate
16875-558: Was modeled after the Bourges Cathedral , although its five naves plan is a consequence of the constructors' intention to cover all of the sacred space of the former city mosque with the cathedral, and of the former sahn with the cloister . It also combines some characteristics of the Mudéjar style, mainly in the cloister, with the presence of multifoiled arches in the triforium . The spectacular incorporation of light and
17010-667: Was not owed to the Goths but to the Islamic Golden Age . He wrote: This we now call the Gothic manner of architecture (so the Italians called what was not after the Roman style) though the Goths were rather destroyers than builders; I think it should with more reason be called the Saracen style, for these people wanted neither arts nor learning: and after we in the west lost both, we borrowed again from them, out of their Arabic books, what they with great diligence had translated from
17145-467: Was originally a church from the era of the first Archbishop Eugene (Saint Eugene of Toledo) located in the same place as the present cathedral. This church was consecrated for a second time in the year 587, after having undergone some alterations, as testified by a 16th-century inscription preserved on a pillar in the rear of the nave of the church which states: In the name of the Lord the Church of Saint Mary
17280-640: Was responsible for the architectural complex of the chapel of the Tabernacle, the Reliquary and the courtyard and house of the treasurer. The renderings and plans were drawn by the grandmaster Nicolás de Vergara el Mozo . To construct this complex, the Hospital of the King was torn down and rebuilt on its former site; these works were carried out under the supervision of Cardinal Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas and
17415-709: Was so enthusiastic about the project and involved himself so much in it that it was later falsely rumoured that he was the designer-architect of the cathedral. The archbishop spent a few years maintaining and reinforcing the old structure in hopes that his dream would be realised. The structure of the building is greatly influenced by the French Gothic style of the 13th century, but adapted to Spanish taste. It measures 120 metres (390 ft) in length by 59 metres (194 ft) in width and 44.5 metres (146 ft) high. It consists of five naves with transept and double ambulatory. The outer naves present an odd anomaly in being
17550-438: Was succeeded by Renaissance architecture . It originated in the Île-de-France and Picardy regions of northern France . The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum ( lit. ' French work ' ); the term Gothic was first applied contemptuously during the later Renaissance , by those ambitious to revive the architecture of classical antiquity . The defining design element of Gothic architecture
17685-456: Was swiftly rebuilt in the new style, with contributions from King Philip II of France , Pope Celestine III , local gentry, merchants, craftsmen, and Richard the Lionheart , king of England. The builders simplified the elevation used at Notre Dame, eliminated the tribune galleries, and used flying buttresses to support the upper walls. The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting
17820-578: Was the Old Somerset House in London (1547–1552) (since demolished), built by Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset , who was regent as Lord Protector for Edward VI until the young king came of age in 1547. Somerset's successor, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland , sent the architectural scholar John Shute to Italy to study the style. Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570. The first English houses in
17955-464: Was the Mozarabic chapel), realised by masters of the stature of Juan Francés ( reja , or the ironwork screen, of the Mozarabic chapel), Enrique Egas, Juan de Borgoña (paintings of the Mozarabic chapel) and its grandmaster Pedro de Gumiel. Cisneros also ordered the magnificent main altarpiece to be built (the work of Diego Copín de Holanda) and the high cloister for the canonical community, plus
18090-507: Was the golden age of Toledo, which consequently came to be called the Imperial City . The best informed and most active patrons lived during this century. It was the archbishop-governors who, in the absence of the kings, attended to the city and added to its magnificence. In 1493, at the end of the 15th century, Cardinal Mendoza supervised the closing of the last vault of the cathedral and expressed in his will his desire to be buried in
18225-412: Was widespread and proved difficult to defeat. Vasari was echoed in the 16th century by François Rabelais , who referred to Goths and Ostrogoths ( Gotz and Ostrogotz ). The polymath architect Christopher Wren disapproved of the name Gothic for pointed architecture. He compared it to Islamic architecture , which he called the ' Saracen style', pointing out that the pointed arch's sophistication
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