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64-727: The Toluca Valley is a broad highland valley located immediately west of the Valley of Mexico. It is one of the highest valleys in Mexico with an average elevation of 2,570 meters above sea level ("masl"). The valley is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt , with its soils of volcanic origin mostly dating from the Upper Cenozoic . Mountains sides have tertiary volcanic rock, mostly basalt and andesite along with pyroclastic matter and breaches. The valley floor

128-412: A gate, café and shelter. From there one can walk 6 km on the relatively flat road or 2 km on the steeper Paso de Quetzal. Because most who visit the top of the volcano are not accustomed to the cold, the park provides emergency shelters in most parts of the park as well as patrols. Visitors must leave the crater area at 5pm to descend before dark. There are 18 registered archeological sites in

192-563: A shrine to the Archangel Michael since the colonial period. There have been intermittent archeological excavations here with the most recent occurring in 2010 sponsored by INAH which found artifacts dating from the epi-Classic (650–900 CE) and Post-Classic (900–1200 CE) and showed that the crater was a meeting place for astronomer priests to predict the growing season. Most visitors to the Nevado de Toluca are from Mexico City and

256-571: A significant problem in the Lerma River above the Alzate Dam. Human inhabitation of central Mexico probably began around 12,000 BCE. By the 12th century CE, various ethnicities inhabited the valley. Pre Hispanic, especially pre Aztec history of the area is scarce primarily because the Aztec destroyed many documents of the prior Tepanec Empire when they came to power. One historical document

320-660: A warrior from the area. The first wave of conquest was in the Mazahua region in the north of the valley in 1473, followed by the conquest of Matlazinco/Tollocan in 1475. Toluca Valley town names begin to appear in Aztec records, and Matlatzinco was renamed as Calixtlahuaca . In 1476 or 1477, the Aztecs confronted the Purépecha armies on the western edge of the Toluca Valley but were decisively defeated. Rebellion broke out in

384-488: Is Mexico's fourth tallest peak at 4,690 meters above sea level. The volcano with its forest around it is considered to be the most representative natural landscape of the State of Mexico. Its Nahuatl name, Xinantecatl is translates as "naked lord", a reference to the fact that the top of the volcano is above the tree line with only rock and grassland and devoid of snow most of the year. However, some dispute this, stating that

448-512: Is a cultural symbol for the valley and the State of Mexico. The area also has significant colonial architecture, particularly hacienda houses, churches and former monasteries; and mansions of the Porfirio Díaz era. Many of these are now operated as museums and other cultural establishments. The Toluca Valley is recognized by plant pathologists as the center of origin of potato late blight pathogen, Phytophthora infestans . This pathogen

512-481: Is an estimated yearly deficit of between 56 and 89 million cubic liters of water, which has caused the disappearance of springs in Almoloya del Río , Alta Empresa and Ameyalco and even dry spots in the Lerma River in the dry season. The loss of water has led to the disappearance of the shallow lakes and wetlands that line the Lerma River in areas such as Almoloya del Río with has destroyed entire aquatic ecosystems. Of

576-405: Is complex. Land mass subsidence (as occurs naturally in some regions) can give the appearance of rising sea levels . Conversely, markings on land masses that are uplifted (due to geological processes) can suggest a relative lowering of mean sea level. Nevado de Toluca National Park The Nevado de Toluca National Park is located southwest of the city of Toluca , Mexico State . It

640-651: Is composed of lacustrine and sedimentary materials . The valley covers an area of about 700 square kilometres, running north south with a length of 35 km. Its width is about 20 km. Its northern border is marked by the Guadalupana Volcano, the Cerro el Aguila and the Sierra Monte Alto. Its southern extension is marked by the Tenango and Zempoala Volcanoes. Its eastern boundary is marked by

704-406: Is concentrated in the area around the volcano and it is known that these materials have been mined illegally in the park itself. There are a number of roads in the park with are almost exclusively used by trucks which take out illegally mined sand and gravel with at least eight illegal open pit mines. While the area is legally only supposed to be forest, mining sand and gravel is relatively easy as it

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768-399: Is formalized as orthometric height . The zero level varies in different countries due to different reference points and historic measurement periods. Climate change and other forces can cause sea levels and elevations to vary over time. Elevation or altitude above sea level is a standard measurement for: Elevation or altitude is generally expressed as " metres above mean sea level" in

832-499: Is infamous for having triggered the Great Irish Famine in the mid 1840s. 19°17′11″N 99°33′34″W  /  19.28652°N 99.55948°W  / 19.28652; -99.55948 Meters above sea level Height above mean sea level is a measure of a location's vertical distance ( height , elevation or altitude ) in reference to a vertical datum based on a historic mean sea level . In geodesy , it

896-433: Is near the surface. Some of these mines are on ejido land. Local government officials claim that they have been closing mines but environmental groups state that the practiced is tolerated by officials. Other problems are due to the many visitors the park receives, which can be as high as 10,000 per day. This includes the illegal dumping of trash and damage to the crater area by automobiles which had been allowed to drive onto

960-479: Is part of the upper course of the Lerma River , which is the main source of surface water. The Toluca Valley is in the southeastern section of the State of Mexico, which accounts for most of the state's territory. This state is the most populous in Mexico with over 14 million people. The state used to center on Mexico City historically, but after this was separated into a Federal District, the political center of

1024-594: Is the Codex García Granados from the early colonial period. It categorizes events of the Toluca Valley into three periods: the “legendary period,” the reign of Tepanac king Tezozomoc , and the Aztec period. There are two important archeological sites in the valley. On the south end is Teotenango . It was founded near the end of the Teotihuacan period by a group now called the Teotenaca. Later,

1088-540: Is thought to be related the marking of the zenith of the sun. A stele found here seems to indicate this. The site at the highest altitude is Pico Noreste at 4,130 meters above sea level. It is a small platform with drainage on which has been found highly deteriorated ceramic pieces. On the west side if the Cerro Prieto Cave, which is really a rock shelter which is more than 60 meters high. Not only does it contain evidence of pre-Hispanic visits but also has been

1152-534: The Chontalcoatlan River toward the Balsas River . The volcano's watersheds feeds a number of freshwater springs and streams, but the capacity of this watershed is being compromised the erosion and deforestation. The erosion has formed ravines with steep sides and 15 cm deep, which does not allow for the seepage of water into the subsoil. This is one of the reasons why a number of springs in

1216-637: The Post Classic period (900-1519 CE), the valley was a complex linguistic mosaic with speakers of at least four languages, Matlatzinca , Mazahua , Otomi , and Nahuatl . Aztec mythology mentions Matzalinco in stories related to their migration to the Valley of Mexico, and probably refers to Nahuatl speakers who settled in the Toluca Valley in the 13th century. Five towns in the valley are mentioned more than once in native histories: Cuahuacan, Malinalco , Matlazinco, Teotenanco, and Xilotepec , indicating that they were important settlements from well before

1280-603: The metric system , or " feet above mean sea level" in United States customary and imperial units . Common abbreviations in English are: For elevations or altitudes, often just the abbreviation MSL is used, e.g., Mount Everest (8849 m MSL), or the reference to sea level is omitted completely, e.g., Mount Everest (8849 m). Altimetry is the measurement of altitude or elevation above sea level. Common techniques are: Accurate measurement of historical mean sea levels

1344-607: The summer solstice . The area has a rainy and dry season with the rainy season extending from mid May to mid October. Most precipitation occurs on the sides of the Nevado de Toluca of up to 1200 mm per year. The valley floor receives an average of 900 mm per year. Almost all precipitation occurs during the rainy season with most coming in June. After this, there is a short dry spell in August before rains return in September. It

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1408-544: The 10,705 hectares registered in 1943 only 3,000 today flood during the rainy season. The dried lagoon lands have become farmland. In addition the quality of the remaining water has been deteriorating since the 1940s with the influx of urban and industrial wastewater . The Lerma River and other channels have been used as drainage channels so the pollution level is very high, surpassing governmental standards for “water suitable for recreational use, conservation of flora and fauna and industrial uses.” Concentrations of heavy metals are

1472-444: The 1930s, the park covered an area of 54,000 hectares, but now it covers only 17,000. Much of the lost land was forested which has diminished the area's ability to replenish local aquifers. In the remaining park lands, more than half of the original tree biomass has been lost. The rural population which lives in and around the park has been involved with agriculture, illegal logging, mineral and soil extraction here. From 1972 to 2000,

1536-606: The 1940s, which has led to ecological consequences in the Toluca Valley . In recent decades 10,000 hectares of forests have disappeared as well as bodies of water such as the seasonal lakes of the Lerma River and numerous fresh water springs due to over pumping of groundwater . Soil acidity and erosion are serious problems. Aside from logging, the park faces other problems due to the large population that lives near it. Mining in Mexico State, mostly of sand and gravel,

1600-574: The Aztec conquest. Much of the Toluca Valley was probably part of the earlier Tepanec Empire, based in Azcapotzalco , with its height around 1370. A number of Toluca Valley towns are listed as Tepenac vassals. The historic record in regards to pre-Aztec Toluca area is not clear because the Aztec destroyed many documents and, from 1428 to 1470, Toluca Valley settlements do not figure prominently in Aztec records. The names of both Tollocan (Toluca) and Matlatzinco apparently are used in records to refer to

1664-476: The Gordo Volcano, La Calera and San Antonio mountain, but these are not as high as the Nevado. However, the most popular activity in this park is to ascend the volcano when there is snow, if severe conditions do not close the park. Anywhere from 2,500 to 10,000 people per day visit just to experience the snow. In the 1990s and first half of the 2000s, there were efforts to build a 19 lane ski resort on

1728-654: The Matlazinca conquered and expanded it. The city existed for about 1,000 years, being abandoned only after the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire . Calixtlahuaca is in the north of the valley, just north of present-day Toluca, and dates from the Toltec period. By the late 15th century, it was a powerful city state that controlled much of the Toluca Valley and was the main target of Aztec conquest. In

1792-639: The Peña Ahumada in the northeast section and in some higher levels areas just under the tree line. Most of the broadleafed trees are found in the piedmont area at the lowest elevations. On the slopes are large extensions of pine trees. Above the tree line up to the crater the area is dominated by alpine meadows and grasslands. These plant communities are an important reserve of endemic species of local and regional importance. Animal life includes opossums, coyotes, squirrels, reptiles, rabbits, and birds. The southeast portion has deep valleys from which flows

1856-727: The Sierra de Las Cruces and La Iglesia mountains and the west is defined by the Nevado de Toluca and the Sierra Morelos. These mountains, along with the elevation of the valley in general cause the area to experience cooler temperatures than the rest of the region. The most distinctive of the surrounding mountains is the Nevado de Toluca (4,690 m asl) to the southwest. The Nevado is the fourth highest mountain in Mexico at 4,600 m asl, formed by successive eruptions with deposited layers of igneous materials . Its peak has snow most of

1920-480: The Sierra de Las Cruces and Nevado de Toluca gives the area a semi-cold to cold climate. The average monthly temperature varies between 5°C at altitudes over 3,000 m and 20°C lower in the valley. The climate is classified as C(w2)(w)bi(g) under the Köppen climate classification which means a sub humid temperate climate with a long summer, winter rain of less than 5%, isothermal with maximum temperatures occurring before

1984-476: The State of Mexico. The park has a number of sporting facilities, including numerous paths for mountain biking, hiking, ATV's and horseback riding. There are picnic and camping areas. The park is popular with athletes training for major competitions such as the Olympics because of the altitude. Permission to scuba dive in the lakes must be obtained from Mexico State parks agency; however, the agency stresses that

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2048-668: The Sun) and the Laguna de la Luna (Lake of the Moon). The Lake of the Sun is larger and deeper. The water extends hundreds of meters deep is clear with green tones. The Lake of the Sun has blue tones. In these have been found a number of important archeological discoveries, which are related to ceremonies that were performed here in the pre-Hispanic period. They are not extremely deep but they are very cold. Fishing and scuba diving can be practiced here, but

2112-471: The Toluca Valley, and Axayacatl returned to reconquer the people. Tenochtitlan administered this area more directly than other parts of the Empire, with client states created on the Purépecha border. Toluca became the administrative center for the valley. Migrations from the Valley of Mexico into the Toluca Valley were encouraged. There was some repression of rebellions under later emperor Ahuitzotl , but there

2176-428: The activity is undertaken at one's own risk. Although modern facilities are not available, cross-country and downhill skiing can be practiced when the weather conditions are right. The park has a shelter, a family inn and an alpine refuge with a communications tower. On the nearby mountain of Cacalotepec, also within the park, there are some skiing facilities including a ski house. Other nearby mountains with skiing are

2240-443: The area have dried up. Often these ravines are also often filled with trash. Each year two springs are lost due to the lowering of water tables in the area. The park is named after the feature it is meant to protect, the Nevado de Toluca or Xinantecatl volcano, with the main entrance in the community of Las Raíces, Temascaltepec . From there a road winds to the top of the volcano for 21 km. The volcano has long been extinct and

2304-515: The area's industry. Urban growth has been chaotic with no planned system of roads or of public transport resulting in traffic jams, especially in Toluca. In the 2000s, there have been infrastructure projects to bypass the city of Toluca and make it easier to cross the valley and connect it better with Mexico City, west into Michoacán and south to Cuernavaca . The growth in industry and population has put significant pressure on fresh water supplies of

2368-459: The areas as well as water pollution problems. Excess pumping of groundwater has led to subsidence problems with an estimate sinking of over two meters since 1962 and a confirmed loss of about forty cm from 2003 to 2008 Investigators at California Institute of Technology, Institute of Technology zero in on remote sensing The pumping and the exploitation of fresh water springs to send potable water to Mexico City has led to diminishing surface water. There

2432-416: The crater. The weather at this altitude is cold for most of the year, with high temperatures varying between 4 and 14C. The summit area can be snowy from November to March, and is sometimes good for off-trail cross-country skiing , but the park closes during the heaviest snowfalls. Since the closing of the crater area to motorized vehicles in 2008, visitors now drive to a point outside the crater which has

2496-423: The first school called San Antonio de Padua. Spanish colonial territorial rule was based on the pre-conquest jurisdictions. Former city-states were defined as cabeceras (head-towns). The former Aztec empire became the audencia of Mexico; it was centered on Mexico City and expanded over the Toluca Valley, and further south and west into the modern states of Guerrero and Morelos . Following Mexican independence,

2560-431: The forest cover of the park was analyzed. Although the total forest area has remained more or less the same, the density of the forest has changed significantly. Density in fir and broadleaved forests have remained stable but large areas of the forest dominated by pine trees have lost density so that most are now rated as being semi-dense or fragmented forests. The reason for this is that pine trees can fetch up to US$ 90 on

2624-493: The healthiest, leaving the weakest and sick behind, making the remaining forests susceptible to pests and diseases. The deforestation of the park follows the general trend of this heavily populated area, were 100 hectares of wild lands are lost due to development. The metropolitan area of Toluca has over 1,350,000 people, four times the population it had in 1930 and continues to have population growth rates above average for Mexico. Industrialization has been very intensive here since

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2688-556: The income. The volcano has been long extinct and has a large crater in which are two shallow lakes. The crater and lakes are popular with visitors from Mexico State and Mexico City , especially when there is snow. There are a number of archeological sites in the park, including the lakes themselves, which contain numerous offerings of copal and other items that were deposited during the pre-Hispanic period. The park offers activities such as hiking, mountain biking and horseback riding as well as limited skiing facilities. Due to its altitude,

2752-424: The jagged edge of the crater, forming nearly vertical walls in most parts. The crater floor is at 4,558 meters above sea level, formed by rock that seals the opening of this long-extinct volcano. The lakes in the crater are the main attraction. This is the only volcano in Mexico with crater lakes. These lakes are among the highest of their type in the world. The two lakes are called the Laguna del Sol (Lake of

2816-431: The latter is recommended only with experts due to the cold and the high altitude. The water levels of the lakes have dropped because of higher temperatures and evaporation rates in the most recent decades. One reason this crater is popular with visitors is that it is the only one in Mexico which can be reached by automobile. A dirt road winds its way up the rugged sides of the volcano for 48 km and ends very close to

2880-437: The market. Many rural communities can no longer make a living with agriculture due to declining soil quality . Most of the damage to the park's lands has come from illegal logging, grazing, illegal mining and damage done by visitor's automobiles, especially in the crater of the volcano . Illegal logging has had the most detrimental effect. The park overall is subject to an annual deforestation rate of 0.5%, but over 13,000 of

2944-594: The name means "Bat Mountain", "Nine Mountains" or "Nine Waters/Springs". Its name in Matlatzinca is Nro’maani Nechhútatá "House of the God of Waters" and in Otomi it is called Tastobo "White Mountain". At the top of the mountain/volcano is a large elliptical crater which measures 2 by 1.5 kilometers. This crater consists of a relatively flat floor with two small lakes surrounded by peaks which rise as high as 500 meters on

3008-523: The neighboring Valley of Mexico, accelerating in the 1950s and 1960s. The population of the valley grew over four times from 1930 to 2000, with rates significant above those of the rest of the country. Today, the valley is an important industrial area with a high population density with most of the area now urbanized. The workforce of the valley changed from 60% engaged in agricultural activities in 1950 to less than 7% in 2000. Today most are employed in industry and commerce especially in Toluca metro area. Most of

3072-552: The next major political change for the valley was in the mid-19th century, when the State of Mexico was divided into various new states, and the Mexico City area was designated as the Federal district. This process gave the State of Mexico is current shape. Its political and cultural center was moved to the Toluca Valley, where the city of Toluca was made its capital. Since then, the political, economic and cultural development of

3136-399: The park a biosphere reserve , which would give the area more legal protections. The park extends over 51,000 hectares, and includes parts of twelve municipalities principally those of Toluca, Zinacantepec and Calimaya. Most of the park is at least sparsely forested with firs, pines and broadleaved trees dominating. Firs are mostly found at the lower levels of the park in an area known as

3200-527: The park, as this was a ritual center during pre-Hispanic periods. Bernardino de Sahagún wrote about the lakes as a place where the indigenous held ceremonies and sacrifices. The lakes themselves are considered to be two sites, as a large number of offerings, especially copal , were deposited in the lakes. These deposits can be found all over the lakebed as the burning copal was set adrift on the lakes' waters until it sank. Other objects have been found such as ceramics and sculpted stones. Divers used to sack many of

3264-475: The parking area outside the crater. There are two routes from the parking area to the crater, a longer, flatter one and the Paso del Quetzal, which is considerably steeper. Cattle are also forbidden to enter the crater area. The damage to the crater area has been deemed "critical" by a number of experts. It is unknown how long the restrictions will last. In 2010, it was suggested that it would be necessary to declare

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3328-406: The parks 17,000 hectares show some degree of disturbance in its ecosystem, such as new meadows being created where forests have been cleared. Agriculture has diminished in the park proper but trout farms have appeared. In areas where there is still forest, most of this forest is more sparse. Until 2000, about 40% of dense pine forests were lost to logging. Another problem that the trees being cut are

3392-535: The pieces found here but now authorities carefully monitor those who dive. Most of the other sites are found on the crater's walls and peaks. One of the sites is called Xicotepec which is at the top of the Cerro de Ombligo. Principally green obsidian blades and multicolored ceramic has been found here. On the north side of the crater is Pico Sahagun, with ceramic pieces, Picos Heilprin North and South in which various types of objects have been found, and El Mirador, which

3456-486: The remaining agricultural activity is for subsistence and seasonal, carried out only during the rainy season. The rapid change has led to environmental degradation. Most of the original wild vegetation is highly exploitable temperate forest, but much of this forest cover has disappeared. Since the latter half of the 20th century more than 10,000 hectares of forests have disappeared, with another 10,000 decimated from their former high density. The Nevado de Toluca National Park

3520-495: The same area, but it is not known if they referred to the same city/state. By the eve of the Aztec conquest in 1475, it is clear that they were two different city-states. Initially, the Aztec Empire mostly ignored the Toluca Valley, until the Purépecha Empire began to make inroads in the mid-15th century. Most of the valley was conquered by Aztec emperor Axayacatl . The Tizoc Stone depicts the emperor Tizoc defeating

3584-439: The soft sandy soil here. In 2008, part of the park was closed to allow for the recuperation of the forests there. More than 20% of the park is considered to be highly damaged, mostly in the higher elevations due to automobiles and grazing by livestock. Since July 2008, cars, motorcycles and ATVs have been forbidden to enter the crater area due to the damage they cause here. Visitors to the crater must now walk two to six km from

3648-463: The state eventually moved to the valley, with its capital in the city of Toluca. Today, most of the state's population is still on the fringes of the Mexico City metropolitan area , but the second highest concentration of people is in the Toluca Valley. Sixty percent of the valley's population of over 1,350,000 lives in the Toluca metropolitan area. The rest live in the over 400 other communities of

3712-642: The summit of the Nevado is significantly colder than the surrounding area. The Nevado de Toluca National Park (NTNP) was established in 1936, with the aim of preserving a 51,000-ha area surrounding the Xinantécatl, or Nevado de Toluca volcano. This park is one of the most important protected areas in Mexico. When the park was created, the lands were not expropriated by the federal government and they continued to be used as ejido , communal and private lands with restrictions. The decree contained provisions to encourage those with lands here to plant with trees. In

3776-476: The valley has focused on this city. Despite degradation from extensive development following population increases, there are areas of great natural beauty. About 3.5 million visitors come annually, mostly from Mexico. These include parts of La Marquesa Park , El Nevado de Toluca, Zacango Zoo , Sierra Morelos Park, Tecula and the Lagunas de Zempoala . The volcano was once a sacred site under earlier religions. It

3840-401: The valley. Due to the political shift, the Nevado de Toluca volcano which towers over the valley has become the cultural symbol for the State of Mexico. Until the mid 20th century, the main economic activities were agriculture and forestry, due to large expanses of forest, the valley floors’ fertile soils and the Lerma River. Industrialization of the valley began in the 1940s, along with that of

3904-478: The year and is surrounded by temperate forests . The mountain has important effects on the climate and hydrology of the Toluca Valley The piedmont is characterized by hills covered by broadleaf forests . On the upper slopes there are conifers . The highest elevations have alpine grasslands , known as Zacatonal . While the area is in the tropical latitudes, its high altitudes along with cold are from

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3968-437: Was decreed a park in 1936, primarily to protect the Nevado de Toluca volcano, which forms nearly the park's entire surface and is the fourth highest peak in Mexico. It is 45 km from Toluca and 135 from Mexico City. The park was established with the aim of conservation, but the park is under increasing pressure from the growth of the Toluca metropolitan area as well as from illegal logging done by local communities who need

4032-449: Was established in 1936 with the purpose of preserving a 51,000-hectare area around the Nevado de Toluca volcano, also known as Xinantécatl. The Nevado de Toluca park, despite its status as a federal reserve has lost half its trees since its establishment, mostly due to illegal logging . Over 75% of the surface has some degree of erosion damage. Much of the agricultural lands have given way to housing developments, mostly built for workers in

4096-738: Was no major military activity in the valley again until the Spanish conquest . At the time the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire, the Toluca Valley was a tribute-paying area and buffer zone between the Aztec and Purépecha empires. Gonzalo de Sandoval conquered most of the area for the Spanish along with Otomi allies. Hernán Cortés ’ cousin Juan Altamirano was given dominion of the Toluca Valley. Franciscan missionaries came soon after, such as Martin de Valencia , Juan de Tecto, Juan de Ahora, and Pedro de Gante , who established missions and

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