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51-769: Anthony John Dyson (13 April 1947 – 4 March 2016) was a British special effects ( SPFX ) designer, best-known for working on the R2-D2 droid props used in The Empire Strikes Back and subsequent films in the Star Wars film series. Born in Dewsbury , West Yorkshire , he attended the private Stratton House School in Abingdon . He founded rocking-horse manufacturer The White Horse Toy Company in Crawley ,

102-584: A Sony commercial featuring a John Cleese look-alike robot. In 2013, Dyson was honoured with the title of Honorary Professor MBA in multimedia for the Stichting Euregio University in the Netherlands. Special effects Special effects (often abbreviated as F/X or simply FX ) are illusions or visual tricks used in the theatre , film , television , video game , amusement park and simulator industries to simulate

153-490: A computer-controlled camera rig called the "Dykstraflex" that allowed precise repetition of camera motion, greatly facilitating travelling-matte compositing. Degradation of film images during compositing was minimised by other innovations: the Dykstraflex used VistaVision cameras that photographed widescreen images horizontally along stock, using far more of the film per frame, and thinner-emulsion filmstocks were used in

204-524: A constant finite rectangular window, in combination. For example, a sensitivity window comprising a Dirac comb combined with a rectangular pulse, is considered a multiple exposure, even though the sensitivity never goes to zero during the exposure. In the historical technique of chronophotography, dating back to the Victorian era , a series of instantaneous photographs were taken at short and equal intervals of time. These photographs could be overlayed for

255-466: A human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets. Godzilla changed the landscape of Japanese cinema , science fiction and fantasy, and kickstarted the kaiju genre in Japan called the "Monster Boom", which remained extremely popular for several decades, with characters such as the aforementioned Godzilla , Gamera and King Ghidorah leading

306-566: A landmark in special effects). During the 1950s and 1960s numerous new special effects were developed which would dramatically increase the level of realism achievable in science fiction films . Sci-fi special effects milestones in the 1950s included the Godzilla films , The Day the Earth Stood Still (featuring Klaatu ), and 3-D films . The tokusatsu genre of Japanese science fiction film and television, which includes

357-472: A lit subject in two (or more) different positions against a perfectly dark background, as the background area will be essentially unexposed. Medium to low light is ideal for double exposures. A tripod may not be necessary if combining different scenes in one shot. In some conditions, for example, recording the whole progress of a lunar eclipse in multiple exposures, a stable tripod is essential. More than two exposures can be combined, with care not to overexpose

408-451: A motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès , an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick." According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès,

459-421: A multiple exposure feature can be set to double-expose after making the first exposure. Since shooting multiple exposures will expose the same frame multiple times, negative exposure compensation must first be set to avoid overexposure. For example, to expose the frame twice with correct exposure, a −1 EV compensation have to be done, and −2 EV for exposing four times. This may not be necessary when photographing

510-496: A non-human creature. Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are the techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure , mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post-production using an optical printer . An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background. Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to

561-435: A scene that were not originally there. It is frequently used in photographic hoaxes . It is considered easiest to have a manual winding camera for double exposures. On automatic winding cameras, as soon as a picture is taken the film is typically wound to the next frame. Some more advanced automatic winding cameras have the option for multiple exposures but it must be set before making each exposure. Manual winding cameras with

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612-470: A single image, making a montaged combination print . In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots , Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume. As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had

663-442: A single multiple exposure print. In photography and cinematography , multiple exposure is a technique in which the camera shutter is opened more than once to expose the film multiple times, usually to different images. The resulting image contains the subsequent image/s superimposed over the original. The technique is sometimes used as an artistic visual effect and can be used to create ghostly images or to add people and objects to

714-445: A small village near Oxford . The company was commissioned by special visual effects supervisor Brian Johnson to fabricate fibreglass shells for the rebuilt R2-D2 props. These were used in the Star Wars sequel, The Empire Strikes Back , and were based on the designs of Ralph McQuarrie , John Stears and others. His team built around eight bodies. Two were used by Kenny Baker, two were stunt shells used for scenes such as shooting

765-739: A tentacle formed from water in The Abyss , the T-1000 Terminator in Terminator 2: Judgment Day , hordes and armies of robots and fantastic creatures in the Star Wars (prequel) and The Lord of the Rings trilogies, and the planet, Pandora, in Avatar . Although most visual effects work is completed during post-production , it must be carefully planned and choreographed in pre-production and production . A visual effects supervisor

816-468: A time-windowing function, such as a Gaussian, that weights time periods near the center of the exposure time more strongly. Another possibility for synthesizing long exposure from a multiple exposure is to use an exponential decay in which the current frame has the strongest weight, and previous frames are faded out with a sliding exponential window. Multiple exposure technique can also be used when scanning transparencies like slides, film or negatives using

867-580: A western-themed arcade, in which several of his cowboy robots were used as interactive arcade games. In the 1990s, he moved to Malta and founded Turn Page Studios in St. Paul's Bay . He died on the island of Gozo . Dyson was knighted in the Byzantine Order of the Holy Sepulchre for promoting philanthropic, cultural and ecumenical activities. In 1985, he was nominated for an Emmy Award for

918-413: Is a double exposure is that the sensitivity goes up and then back down. The simplest example of a multiple exposure is a double exposure without flash, i.e. two partial exposures are made and then combined into one complete exposure. Some single exposures, such as "flash and blur" use a combination of electronic flash and ambient exposure. This effect can be approximated by a Dirac delta measure (flash) and

969-508: Is impossible due to the destructive nature of the effect. Live special effects are effects that are used in front of a live audience, such as in theatre, sporting generation genre, concerts and corporate shows. Types of effects that are commonly used include: flying effects, laser lighting , theatrical smoke and fog , CO 2 effects , and pyrotechnics . Other atmospheric effects can include flame, confetti , bubbles, and snow. One notable example of live special effects in theatre production

1020-573: Is in the Bregenz Festival with its use of a large, intricate stage that moves to supplement what's being acted on stage. Mechanical effects encompass the use of mechanical engineering to a greater degree. Cars being flipped and hauled over buildings are usually an effect built on specialised rigs and gimbals . Usually a team of engineers or freelance film companies provide these effects to producers . Camera workers, stunt artists or doubles, directors and engineers collaborate to produce

1071-468: Is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with the Director and all related personnel to achieve the desired effects. Practical effects also require significant pre-planning and co-ordination with performers and production teams. The live nature of the effects can result in situations where resetting due to an error, mistake, or safety concern incurs significant expense, or

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1122-405: The kaiju sub-genre of monster films , rose to prominence in the 1950s. The special-effects director Eiji Tsuburaya and the director Ishirō Honda became the driving forces behind the original Godzilla (1954). Taking inspiration from King Kong (1933), Tsuburaya formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the tokusatsu genre, such as so-called suitmation —the use of

1173-566: The "Cinemagician." His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne 's From the Earth to the Moon , featured a combination of live action and animation , and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work. From 1910 to 1920, the main innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn . With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block

1224-788: The challenge of simulating spectacle in motion encouraged the development of the use of miniatures. Animation , creating the illusion of motion, was accomplished with drawings (most notably by Winsor McCay in Gertie the Dinosaur ) and with three-dimensional models (most notably by Willis O'Brien in The Lost World and King Kong ). Naval battles could be depicted with models in studio. Tanks and aeroplanes could be flown (and crashed) without risk of life and limb. Most impressively, miniatures and matte paintings could be used to depict worlds that never existed. Fritz Lang 's film Metropolis

1275-590: The compositing process. The effects crew assembled by Lucas was dubbed Industrial Light & Magic , and since 1977 has spearheaded many effects innovations. That same year, Steven Spielberg 's film Close Encounters of the Third Kind boasted a finale with impressive special effects by 2001 veteran Douglas Trumbull. In addition to developing his own motion-control system, Trumbull also developed techniques for creating intentional " lens flare " (the shapes created by light reflecting in camera lenses) to provide

1326-511: The design and use of the optical printer, effects shots were accomplished as in-camera effects . Dunn demonstrating that it could be used to combine images in novel ways and create new illusions. One early showcase for Dunn was Orson Welles ' Citizen Kane , where such locations as Xanadu (and some of Gregg Toland 's famous ' deep focus ' shots) were essentially created by Dunn's optical printer. The development of color photography required greater refinement of effects techniques. Color enabled

1377-413: The development of computer-generated imagery (CGI), which has changed nearly every aspect of motion picture special effects. Digital compositing allows far more control and creative freedom than optical compositing, and does not degrade the image as with analogue (optical) processes. Digital imagery has enabled technicians to create detailed models, matte "paintings," and even fully realised characters with

1428-489: The development of such travelling matte techniques as bluescreen and the sodium vapour process . Many films became landmarks in special-effects accomplishments: Forbidden Planet used matte paintings, animation, and miniature work to create spectacular alien environments. In The Ten Commandments , Paramount's John P. Fulton , A.S.C., multiplied the crowds of extras in the Exodus scenes with careful compositing, depicted

1479-402: The droid from the swamp onto the shore on Dagobah, and most of the rest were mechanized with radio controllers by an effects team at EMI Studios. Dyson also created robotics and props for Superman II , Moonraker , and Dragonslayer . He also worked on Saturn 3 . In the mid-1980s, he moved with his family to Kissamos on the island of Crete , where he created a robotics lab as well as

1530-427: The exposure of the film, which would be exposed later. Dawn combined this technique with the "glass shot." Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, Dawn simply painted certain areas black to prevent any light from exposing the film. From the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn. By creating the matte from an image directly from

1581-416: The film's undefinable shapes of flying saucers. The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fuelled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as computer-generated imagery (CGI). It has also encouraged within

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1632-425: The film, it became incredibly easy to paint an image with proper respect to scale and perspective (the main flaw of the glass shot). Dawn's technique became the textbook for matte shots due to the natural images it created. During the 1920s and 1930s, special effects techniques were improved and refined by the motion picture industry. Many techniques—such as the Schüfftan process —were modifications of illusions from

1683-520: The film. Digital technology enables images to be superimposed over each other by using a software photo editor , such as Adobe Photoshop or the GIMP . These enable the opacity of the images to be altered and for an image to be overlaid over another. They also can set the layers to multiply mode, which 'adds' the colors together rather than making the colors of either image pale and translucent. Many digital SLR cameras allow multiple exposures to be made on

1734-419: The forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI. In 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into

1785-590: The imagined events in a story or virtual world . It is sometimes abbreviated as SFX , but this may also refer to sound effects . Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of mechanical effects and optical effects . With the emergence of digital film-making a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter referring to digital post-production and optical effects, while "special effects" refers to mechanical effects. Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects ) are usually accomplished during

1836-441: The industry a greater distinction between special effects and visual effects ; the latter is used to characterise post-production and optical work, while "special effects" refers more often to on-set and mechanical effects. The use of computer animation in film dates back to the early 1980s, with the films Tron (1982) and Golgo 13: The Professional (1983). Since the 1990s, a profound innovation in special effects has been

1887-587: The late 1960s and early 1970s, many studios closed down their in-house effects houses. Technicians became freelancers or founded their own effects companies, sometimes specialising on particular techniques (opticals, animation, etc.). The second was precipitated by the blockbuster success of two science-fiction and fantasy films in 1977. George Lucas 's Star Wars ushered in an era of science-fiction films with expensive and impressive special effects. Effects supervisor John Dykstra , A.S.C. and crew developed many improvements in existing effects technology. They created

1938-420: The live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanised props , scenery, scale models , animatronics , pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and make-up. For example, prosthetic make-up can be used to make an actor look like

1989-445: The malleability of computer software. Arguably the biggest and most "spectacular" use of CGI is in the creation of photo-realistic images of science-fiction/fantasy characters, settings and objects. Images can be created in a computer using the techniques of animated cartoons and model animation. The Last Starfighter (1984) used computer generated spaceships instead of physical scale models . In 1993, stop-motion animators working on

2040-554: The market. Tokusatsu films, notably Warning from Space (1956), sparked Stanley Kubrick 's interest in science fiction films; according to his biographer John Baxter , despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets." In 1968, Stanley Kubrick assembled his own effects team ( Douglas Trumbull , Tom Howard , Con Pederson and Wally Veevers) rather than use an in-house effects unit for 2001: A Space Odyssey . In this film,

2091-511: The massive constructions of Rameses with models, and split the Red Sea in a still-impressive combination of travelling mattes and water tanks. Ray Harryhausen extended the art of stop-motion animation with his special techniques of compositing to create spectacular fantasy adventures such as Jason and the Argonauts (whose climax, a sword battle with seven animated skeletons, is considered

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2142-475: The multiple exposure effect. Examples include Joan Semmel 's oil on canvas "Transitions" from 2012, and Ian Hornak 's acrylic on canvas "Hanna Tillich's Mirror: Rembrandt's Three Trees Transformed Into The Expulsion From Eden", from 1978 (depicted below). With traditional film cameras, a long exposure is a single exposure, whereas with electronic cameras a long exposure can be obtained by integrating together many exposures. This averaging also permits there to be

2193-402: The person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century. It wasn't only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in

2244-430: The proper effect as the action is recorded against a green screen. It is then edited and reviewed before final release to the public. Multiple exposure Ordinarily, cameras have a sensitivity to light that is a function of time. For example, a one-second exposure is an exposure in which the camera image is equally responsive to light over the exposure time of one second. The criterion for determining that something

2295-552: The realistic dinosaurs of Steven Spielberg 's Jurassic Park were retrained in the use of computer input devices. By 1995, films such as Toy Story underscored the fact that the distinction between live-action films and animated films was no longer clear. Other landmark examples include a character made up of broken pieces of a stained-glass window in Young Sherlock Holmes , a shape-shifting character in Willow ,

2346-449: The same image within the camera without the need for any external software. And some bridge cameras can take successive multiple exposures (sometimes up to nine) in one frame and in one shot. It is the same with high-dynamic-range imaging , which takes multiple shots in one burst captures, then combines all the proper shots into one frame. In addition to direct photographic usage of the technique, fine artists ' work has been inspired by

2397-512: The spaceship miniatures were highly detailed and carefully photographed for a realistic depth of field . The shots of spaceships were combined through hand-drawn rotoscoping and careful motion-control work, ensuring that the elements were precisely combined in the camera—a surprising throwback to the silent era, but with spectacular results. Backgrounds of the African vistas in the "Dawn of Man" sequence were combined with soundstage photography via

2448-492: The stage manager at the Theatre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films between 1896 and 1914, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures , time-lapse photography , dissolves , and hand painted colour. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph , the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as

2499-652: The theatre (such as pepper's ghost ) and still photography (such as double exposure and matte compositing). Rear projection was a refinement of the use of painted backgrounds in the theatre, substituting moving pictures to create moving backgrounds. Lifecasting of faces was imported from traditional maskmaking. Along with make-up advances, fantastic masks could be created which fit the actor perfectly. As material science advanced, horror film maskmaking followed closely. Many studios established in-house "special effects" departments, which were responsible for nearly all optical and mechanical aspects of motion-picture trickery. Also,

2550-416: The then-new front projection technique. Scenes set in zero-gravity environments were staged with hidden wires, mirror shots, and large-scale rotating sets. The finale, a voyage through hallucinogenic scenery, was created by Douglas Trumbull using a new technique termed slit-scan . The 1970s provided two profound changes in the special effects trade. The first was economic: during the industry's recession in

2601-470: Was an early special effects spectacular, with innovative use of miniatures, matte paintings, the Schüfftan process, and complex compositing. An important innovation in special-effects photography was the development of the optical printer . Essentially, an optical printer is a projector aiming into a camera lens, and it was developed to make copies of films for distribution. Until Linwood G. Dunn refined

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