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125-731: The word Toraja comes from the Buginese language term to riaja , meaning "people of the uplands", this cognates with the Toraja language to raya / to raja / to raa which also means "inland/upland people" or "northern people". The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909. Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites , burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan , and colourful wood carvings . Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days. Before

250-471: A slave ship and asked if he was going to be eaten. Yet, the worst for slaves has only begun, and the journey on the water proved to be more harrowing. For every 100 Africans captured, only 64 would reach the coast, and only about 50 would reach the New World. Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and in keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with

375-411: A "bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them. British explorer Mungo Park encountered a group of slaves when traveling through Mandinka country: They were all very inquisitive, but they viewed me at first with looks of horror, and repeatedly asked if my countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed

500-487: A Buginese myth, the term Ugi is derived from the name to the first king of Cina, an ancient Bugis kingdom, La Sattumpugi . To Ugi basically means 'the followers of La Sattumpugi'. Little is known about the early history of this language due to the lack of written records. The earliest written record of this language is Sureq Galigo , the epic creation myth of the Bugis people. Another written source of Buginese

625-593: A ceremony known as the Annual Customs . As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples. Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led

750-540: A clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself. Prior to Suharto 's "New Order" administration, the Torajan economy was based on agriculture, with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes, and supplemental cassava and maize crops. Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo, pigs, and chickens, primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption. Coffee

875-429: A field waiting for their owner, who is in the "sleeping stage". Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes. Some of

1000-485: A geometrical tool. On 24 March 2022, about 125 patterns were given communal intellectual property copyright sertificates by the Ministry of Law and Human Rights , in order for protecting of traditional culture expressions. In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. In the aluk religion, only nobles have

1125-510: A group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan . As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time . The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice . There are several war dances , such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by

1250-835: A hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. 27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young. The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after

1375-565: A matter-of-fact tone with very few mythical elements, and the writers would usually put disclaimers before stating something that they cannot verify. Prior to the Dutch arrival in the 19th century, a missionary, B. F. Matthews, translated the Bible into Buginese, which made him the first European to acquire knowledge of the language. He was also one of the first Europeans to master Makassarese . The dictionaries and grammar books compiled by him, and

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1500-409: A procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante , the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter ,

1625-493: A rocky cliff. The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete. In some areas, a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family. A wood-carved effigy , called Tau tau , is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land. Whilst a coffin of a baby is embedded into a burrow of a living tree, so called "baby tree". In the ritual called Ma'Nene , that takes place each year in August,

1750-420: A saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more. The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life ( agriculture ) and death ( funerals ), is called to minaa (an aluk priest ). Aluk

1875-423: A small minority. Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped with a layered split- bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc, and they are incised with red, black, and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls. The word "tongkonan" comes from the Torajan tongkon ("to sit"). Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life. The rituals associated with

2000-640: A total number of 150,000 foreigners had visited the Regency (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40,000 in 1989. Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao, the cultural center of Toraja, roads were sealed at the most-visited tourist sites, new hotels and tourist-oriented restaurants were opened, and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981. Tourism developers marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure—an area rich in culture and off-the-beaten-track. Toraja

2125-408: A traditional Torajan house. Each tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship . Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin)—except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship

2250-415: A trail of slaves: 19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered. 26th June. – ...We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about

2375-410: A uniform explanation must be presented to tourists. Torajan wood carvings are composed of numerous square panels, each of which can represent various things, for example buffaloes as a wish of wealth for the family; a knot and a box, symbolizing the hope that all of the family's offspring will be happy and live in harmony; aquatic animals , indicating the need for fast and hard work, just like moving on

2500-405: Is Lontara , a term which refers to the traditional script and historical record as well. The earliest historical record of Lontara dates to around the 17th century. Lontara records have been described by historians of Indonesia as "sober" and "factual" when compared to their counterparts from other regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as the babad of Java. These records are usually written in

2625-573: Is actively reciprocal , meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts. Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in

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2750-604: Is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population. Niger installed an anti-slavery provision in 2003. In a landmark ruling in 2008, the ECOWAS Community Court of Justice declared that the Republic of Niger failed to protect Hadijatou Mani Koraou from slavery, and awarded Mani CFA 10,000,000 (approximately US$ 20,000 ) in reparations. Sexual slavery and forced labor are common in

2875-449: Is not just a belief system ; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. The decline of

3000-522: Is represented by ⟨ny⟩ , [ŋ] by ⟨ng⟩ , [ɟ] by ⟨j⟩ , [j] by ⟨y⟩ . The glottal stop [ʔ] is usually represented by an apostrophe (e.g. ana' [anaʔ] 'child'), but occasionally ⟨q⟩ is also used. /e/ and /ə/ are usually uniformly spelled as ⟨e⟩ , but /e/ is often written as ⟨é⟩ to avoid ambiguity. Buginese has four sets of personal pronouns, one free set, and three bound sets: The enclitic set

3125-588: Is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language. Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang , Mamasa , Tae , Talondo , Toala , and Toraja-Sa'dan , belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between

3250-642: Is used with subjects of intransitive verbs, and objects of transitive verbs. The proclitic set is with subjects of transitive verbs. The suffixed set is primarily used in possessive function. The following are grammatical aspects of the language: ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ pura-no have [portmanteau of perfective na ( ᨊ ) + you] ᨆᨙᨋ? manre eat ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ ᨆᨙᨋ? pura-no manre {have [portmanteau of perfective na ( ᨊ ) + you]} eat 'Have you already eaten?' ᨉᨙᨄ deq-pa not + [conditional ( ᨄ )] ᨉᨙᨄ deq-pa {not + [conditional ( ᨄ )]} 'Not yet.' ⟨q⟩ represents

3375-545: The Ethnologue : Bone (Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajane), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenreng, North Pinrang, Alitta), Pasangkayu (Ugi Riawa), Sinjai (Enna, Palattae, Bulukumba), Soppeng (Kessi), Wajo, Barru (Pare-Pare, Nepo, Soppeng Riaja, Tompo, Tanete), Sawitto (Pinrang), Luwu (Luwu, Bua Ponrang, Wara, Malangke-Ussu). The numbers are: History of slavery The history of slavery spans many cultures , nationalities , and religions from ancient times to

3500-867: The Akkadian Empire , Assyria , Babylonia , Persia , ancient Israel , ancient Greece , ancient India , the Roman Empire , the Arab Islamic Caliphates and Sultanates , Nubia , the pre-colonial empires of Sub-Saharan Africa, and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas. Ancient slavery consists of a mixture of debt-slavery , punishment for crime, prisoners of war , child abandonment , and children born to slaves. Writing in 1984, French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery had been endemic in Africa and part of

3625-853: The Dey of Algiers to free many slaves. The trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin . In parts of Ghana , a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo , and Benin , shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of ritual servitude , sometimes called trokosi (in Ghana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are used sexually by

3750-580: The Early Middle Ages but continued to be practiced in some areas. Both Christians and Muslims captured and enslaved each other during centuries of warfare in the Mediterranean and Europe. Islamic slavery encompassed mainly Western and Central Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa, India , and Europe from the 7th to the 20th century. Islamic law approved of enslavement of non-Muslims, and slaves were trafficked from non-Muslim lands: from

3875-621: The Kanem was about one third enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1396–1893). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of Arab - Swahili Zanzibar

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4000-749: The Kecamatan building in Rantepao. To express social and religious concepts, Torajans carve wood , calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). Wood carvings are therefore Toraja's cultural manifestation. Each carving receives a special name, and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolise some virtue. For example, water plants and animals, such as crabs , tadpoles and water weeds , are commonly found to symbolise fertility. In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family, but not everyone agrees. The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel

4125-444: The Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree. A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling ( suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to

4250-654: The Malay word for the palmyra palm , lontar , the leaves of which are the traditional material for manuscripts in India , South East Asia and Indonesia . Today, however, it is often written using the Latin script . The Buginese lontara (locally known as Aksara Ugi ) has a slightly different pronunciation from the other lontaras like the Makassarese. Like other Indic scripts, it also utilizes diacritics to distinguish

4375-833: The Sahara , through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea , another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean , perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on

4500-484: The South Sulawesi subgroup, it is most closely related to Campalagian . Most of the native speakers (around 3 million) are concentrated in South Sulawesi , Indonesia but there are small groups of Buginese speakers on the island of Java , Samarinda and east Sumatra of Indonesia , east Sabah and Malay Peninsula , Malaysia and South Philippines . This Bugis diaspora is the result of migration since

4625-517: The Sulawesi highland region. "Toraja" (from the coastal languages' to , meaning people; and riaja , uplands) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders. As a result, "Toraja" initially had more currency with outsiders—such as the Bugis and Makassarese , who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi—than with insiders. The Dutch missionaries' presence in the highlands gave rise to

4750-807: The United States , France , Spain , Portugal , Holland , West Africa and Arabia . The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria ) allegedly became dissatisfied of the British intervention in stopping the trade of slaves: "We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself." Joseph Miller states that African buyers would prefer males, but in reality, women and children would be more easily captured as men fled. Those captured would be sold for various reasons such as food, debts, or servitude. Once captured,

4875-492: The present day . Likewise, its victims have come from many different ethnicities and religious groups. The social, economic , and legal positions of slaves have differed vastly in different systems of slavery in different times and places. Slavery has been found in some hunter-gatherer populations, particularly as hereditary slavery, but the conditions of agriculture with increasing social and economic complexity offer greater opportunity for mass chattel slavery . Slavery

5000-673: The private sector ; 15.4 million live in forced marriages. Forms of slavery include domestic labour, forced labour in manufacturing, fishing, mining and construction, and sexual slavery . Evidence of slavery predates written records; the practice has existed in many cultures and can be traced back 11,000 years ago due to the conditions created by the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution . Economic surpluses and high population densities were conditions that made mass slavery viable. Slavery occurred in civilizations including ancient Egypt , ancient China ,

5125-408: The tongkonan batu . The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia. As they send back money to their families, they enable the construction of larger tongkonan . Architecture in the style of a tongkonan is still very common. Various administration buildings were built in this style in recent years, e.g.

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5250-556: The 17th century that was mainly driven by continuous warfare situations. ( Dutch direct colonization started in the early 20th century.) Buginese has six vowels: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ , /u/ , and the central vowel /ə/ . The following table gives the consonant phonemes of Buginese together with their representation in Lontara script . When Buginese is written in Latin script, general Indonesian spelling conventions are applied: [ɲ]

5375-509: The 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company . Over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among

5500-751: The 17th century. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon , the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger , the Kongo , and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola . Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves as well as Bono . The population of

5625-526: The 1840s, King Gezo of Dahomey said: "The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery." In 1807 the United Kingdom made the international trade of slaves illegal with the Slave Trade Act . The Royal Navy was deployed to prevent slavers from

5750-438: The 1970s, Western tourism was almost unknown in the Toraja highland area. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla, the highest-ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so-called "last pure-blooded Toraja noble." The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited

5875-461: The 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity. When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia : it was exploited by tourism development and studied by anthropologists . In 1977, Hinduism

6000-532: The Americas . The merchants were sources of desired goods including guns, gunpowder, copper manillas , and cloth, and this demand for imported goods drove local wars and other means to the enslavement of Africans in ever greater numbers. In India and throughout the New World, people were forced into slavery to create the local workforce. The transatlantic slave trade was eventually curtailed after European and American governments passed legislation abolishing their nations' involvement in it. Practical efforts to enforce

6125-529: The Americas. The Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their colony at the Cape of Good Hope (now Cape Town ) in the 17th century. In 1807 Britain (which already held a small coastal territory, intended for the resettlement of former slaves, in Freetown , Sierra Leone ) made the slave trade within its empire illegal with the Slave Trade Act 1807 , and worked to extend the prohibition to other territory, as did

6250-467: The Creator . The cosmos, according to aluk , is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with

6375-734: The Democratic Republic of Congo. Many pygmies in the Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo belong from birth to Bantus in a system of slavery. Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao plantations in West Africa; see the chocolate and slavery article. According to the U.S. State Department , more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Ivory Coast in "the worst forms of child labour " in 2002. On

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6500-626: The Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims. Between 1951 and 1965 (following Indonesian independence ), southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi. The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to Christianity. Alignment with the Indonesian government, however, did not guarantee safety for

6625-624: The Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French . Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the trade of slaves with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin 's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast". In

6750-643: The Makassarese and Bugis peoples. The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians . In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government. In addition to introducing Christianity , the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sa'dan area and called Tana Toraja ("the land of Toraja"). Tana Toraja

6875-1170: The North via the Balkan slave trade and the Crimean slave trade ; from the East via the Bukhara slave trade ; from the West via Andalusian slave trade ; and from the South via the Trans-Saharan slave trade , the Red Sea slave trade and the Indian Ocean slave trade . Beginning in the 16th century , European merchants , starting mainly with merchants from Portugal , initiated the transatlantic slave trade . Few traders ventured far inland, attempting to avoid tropical diseases and violence. They mostly purchased imprisoned Africans (and exported commodities including gold and ivory ) from West African kingdoms, transporting them to Europe's colonies in

7000-1032: The Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640). The Middle Passage , the crossing of the Atlantic to the Americas , endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds of ships, was only one element of the well-known triangular trade engaged in by Portuguese, American, Dutch, Danish-Norwegians, French, British and others. Ships having landed with slaves in Caribbean ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and later coffee, and make for Liverpool , Nantes , Lisbon or Amsterdam . Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printed cotton textiles, some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter plates and pots, iron bars more valued than gold, hats, trinkets, gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical shipworms were eliminated in

7125-501: The Saʼadan (eastern Toraja) in the island of Sulawesi (Celebes), Indonesia, there are homosexual male toburake tambolang shamans; although among their neighbors the Mamasa (western Toraja) there are instead only heterosexual female toburake shamanesses. The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language

7250-403: The Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa'dan Toraja region, and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency . Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups—the Bugis (the majority, including shipbuilders and seafarers), the Makassarese (lowland traders and seafarers), the Mandarese (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (highland rice cultivators). From

7375-567: The Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride. The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonisation and Christianisation , Torajans, who lived in highland areas, identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity. Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages, there were variations in dialects, differences in social hierarchies, and an array of ritual practices in

7500-609: The Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program , introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages. A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterised their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. Giving

7625-401: The Toraja religion began with the Christianization under rule of the Dutch . During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practised today, while life rituals have diminished. The traditional Toraja religion is today only practiced by

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7750-417: The Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan , where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a jaw harp ). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies. Among

7875-416: The Torajans. In 1965, a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognised religions: Islam, Christianity ( Protestantism and Catholicism ), Hinduism , or Buddhism . The Torajan religious belief ( aluk ) was not legally recognised, and the Torajans raised their voices against the law. To make aluk accord with the law, it had to be accepted as part of one of

8000-403: The United States in 1808. In Senegambia , between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the Western Sudan , including Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), about a third of the population was enslaved. The earliest Akan state of Bonoman which had third of its population being enslaved in

8125-710: The abolition of slavery included the British Preventative Squadron and the American African Slave Trade Patrol , the abolition of slavery in the Americas, and the widespread imposition of European political control in Africa. In modern times, human trafficking remains an international problem. Slavery in the 21st century continues and generates an estimated $ 150 billion in annual profits. Populations in regions with armed conflict are especially vulnerable, and modern transportation has made human trafficking easier. In 2019, there were an estimated 40.3 million people worldwide subject to some form of slavery, and 25% were children. 24.9 million are used for forced labor , mostly in

8250-461: The arrival of the Portuguese . Because it had been established within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally slaves to sell, he wrote letters to the King João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice. The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise may have been killed in

8375-574: The author) across the Atlantic Ocean" Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, during the Indian Ocean slave trade and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century, with as many as 50,000 slaves passing through the city each year. Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the Arabian peninsula . Zanzibar became a leading port in this trade. Arab traders of slaves differed from European ones in that they would often conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep into

8500-411: The best clothing, meaning they were even more exposed to diseases. On top of the fear of disease, people were afraid of why they were being captured. The popular assumption was that Europeans were cannibals . Stories and rumours spread that whites captured Africans to eat them. Olaudah Equiano accounts his experience about the sorrow slaves encountered at the ports. He talks about his first moment on

8625-410: The bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed, groomed and dressed in new clothes. Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout

8750-476: The body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan . The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which it begins its journey to Puya . Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo . The more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Buffalo carcasses, including their heads, are usually lined up on

8875-573: The cold Atlantic waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made. The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century when the largest number of people were captured and enslaved on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African states, such as the Bono State , Oyo empire ( Yoruba ), Kong Empire , Kingdom of Benin , Imamate of Futa Jallon , Imamate of Futa Toro , Kingdom of Koya , Kingdom of Khasso , Kingdom of Kaabu , Fante Confederacy , Ashanti Confederacy , Aro Confederacy and

9000-534: The continent. They also differed in that their market greatly preferred the purchase of enslaved females over male. The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave caravan routes across the Sahara from the Sahel to North Africa. The German explorer Gustav Nachtigal reported seeing slave caravans departing from Kukawa in Bornu bound for Tripoli and Egypt in 1870. The trade of slaves represented

9125-429: The crew. Death was so common that ships were called tumbeiros, or floating tombs. What shocked Africans the most was how death was handled in the ships. Smallwood says the traditions for an African death were delicate and community-based. On ships, bodies would be thrown into the sea. Because the sea represented bad omens, bodies in the sea represented a form of purgatory and the ship a form of hell. Any Africans who made

9250-713: The crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone. African states played a key role in the trade of slaves, and slavery was a common practice among Sub Saharan Africans even before the involvement of the Arabs , Berbers and Europeans . There were three types: those who were enslaved through conquest, instead of unpaid debts, or those whose parents gave them as property to tribal chiefs. Chieftains would barter their slaves to Arab, Berber, Ottoman or European buyers for rum, spices, cloth or other goods. Selling captives or prisoners

9375-483: The descended person from heaven, lived in tongkonans , while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called banua ). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's tongkonan . Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there

9500-539: The destination was too commercialised. This resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers, whom Torajans see as outsiders. A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government (as a tourist developer) broke out in 1985. The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions. Consequently, zoning restrictions were applied to these areas, such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites. The plan

9625-468: The disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of new crops from the Americas ( cassava , maize) would have limited general population decline to particular regions of western Africa around 1760–1810, and in Mozambique and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has also been speculation that within Africa, females were most often captured as brides , with their male protectors being

9750-413: The exceptions of funerals for young children, and poor, low-status adults. The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden, abrupt event, but a gradual process toward Puya (the land of souls, or afterlife ). During the waiting period,

9875-549: The exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine , who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share. In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class . There were three strata: nobles , commoners , and slaves (slavery

10000-648: The glottal stop. It is not written in the Lontara script. Example of usage: ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ méloq-kaq want-I ᨌᨛᨆᨙ cemmé bathe { ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ } ᨌᨛᨆᨙ méloq-kaq cemmé want-I bathe I want to take a bath Buginese was traditionally written using the Lontara script , of the Brahmic family , which is also used for the Makassar language and the Mandar language . The name Lontara derives from

10125-419: The house and held a large ceremony. The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family. There are three types of tongkonan . The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority, used as the "center of government". The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions . Ordinary family members reside in

10250-425: The incident. According to police, approximately 276 children were taken in the attack, of whom 53 had escaped as of 2 May. Other reports said that 329 girls were kidnapped, 53 had escaped and 276 were still missing. The students have been forced to convert to Islam and into marriage with members of Boko Haram, with a reputed " bride price " of ₦ 2,000 each ( $ 12.50/ £ 7.50). Many of the students were taken to

10375-703: The inherent vowel, so it is normally impossible to write consonant clusters (a few ones were added later, derived from ligatures, to mark the prenasalization ), geminated consonants or final consonants. The Bugis still distinguish themselves according to their major precolony states ( Bone , Wajo , Soppeng and Sidenreng ) or groups of petty states (around Pare-Pare , Sinjai and Suppa.) The languages of these areas, with their relatively minor differences from one another, have been largely recognized by linguists as constituting dialects: recent linguistic research has identified eleven of them, most comprising two or more sub-dialects. The following Buginese dialects are listed in

10500-574: The journey to the coast killed many and weakened others. Disease engulfed many, and insufficient food damaged those who made it to the coasts. Scurvy was common, and was often referred to as mal de Luanda ("Luanda sickness," after the port in Angola). The assumption for those who died on the journey died from malnutrition . As food was limited, water may have been just as bad. Dysentery was widespread and poor sanitary conditions at ports did not help. Since supplies were poor, slaves were not equipped with

10625-654: The journey would have survived extreme disease and malnutrition, as well as trauma from being on the open ocean and the death of their friends. In Algiers during the time of the Regency of Algiers in North Africa in the 19th century, up to 1.5 million Christians and Europeans were captured and forced into slavery. This eventually led to the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816 by the British and Dutch , forcing

10750-540: The kingdom of Dahomey . Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. The people captured on these expeditions were shipped by European traders to the colonies of the New World . It is estimated that over the centuries, twelve to twenty million slaves were shipped from Africa by European traders, of whom some 15 percent died during

10875-429: The literature and folklore texts he published, remain basic sources of information about both languages. Upon colonization by the Dutch , a number of Bugis fled from their home area of South Sulawesi seeking a better life. This led to the existence of small groups of Buginese speakers throughout Maritime Southeast Asia . Buginese belongs to the South Sulawesi subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Within

11000-509: The lowlands by the Dutch, where they could be more easily controlled. Taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, and only a few Torajans were converted . In 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans, resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with

11125-530: The major source of revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions of the Central African Republic have never recovered demographically from the impact of 19th-century raids from the Sudan and still have a population density of less than 1 person/km . During the 1870s, European initiatives against the trade of slaves caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating

11250-564: The names of mothers, fathers and siblings. Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency , each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses ( tongkonan ), practically signed by

11375-545: The neighbouring countries of Chad and Cameroon , with sightings reported of the students crossing borders with the militants, and sightings of the students by villagers living in the Sambisa Forest , which is considered a refuge for Boko Haram. On 5 May 2014 a video in which Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau claimed responsibility for the kidnappings emerged. Shekau claimed that "Allah instructed me to sell them...I will carry out his instructions" and " [s]lavery

11500-683: The night of 14–15 April 2014, a group of militants attacked the Government Girls Secondary School in Chibok , Nigeria. They broke into the school, pretending to be guards, telling the girls to get out and come with them. A large number of students were taken away in trucks, possibly into the Konduga area of the Sambisa Forest where Boko Haram were known to have fortified camps. Houses in Chibok were also burned down in

11625-451: The night to honour the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong ). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes

11750-411: The official religions. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo ("the way of ancestors") was legalised as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma , the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia. There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society: family, class and religion. Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family , the seat of which is the tongkonan ,

11875-481: The period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labour-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and forced labour . The personal monarchy of Belgian King Leopold II in the Congo Free State saw mass killings and slavery to extract rubber. Surviving the voyage was the main struggle. Close quarters meant everyone was infected by any diseases that spread, including

12000-581: The priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine. An article in the Middle East Quarterly in 1999 reported that slavery is endemic in Sudan . Estimates of abductions during the Second Sudanese Civil War range from 14,000 to 200,000 people. During the Second Sudanese Civil War people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000. Abduction of Dinka women and children

12125-500: The regency and in 1981, Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums. "The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja", as written in the exhibition brochure, embraced the outside world. In 1984, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi . Tana Toraja was heralded as "the second stop after Bali ". Tourism was increasing dramatically: by 1985,

12250-414: The region and then marrying a noble woman. Buginese language Buginese or Bugis (Buginese: ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ /basa.uɡi/ ) is a language spoken by about 4 million people mainly in the southern part of Sulawesi , Indonesia . The word Buginese derives from the word Bahasa Bugis in Malay . In Buginese, it is called Basa Ugi while the Bugis people are called To Ugi . According to

12375-459: The right to have an extensive death feast. The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days. A ceremonial site, called rante , is usually prepared in a large, grassy field where shelters for audiences, rice barns, and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased's family. Flute music, funeral chants, songs and poems, and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with

12500-509: The rise of Mahdist forces. Mahdi 's victory created an Islamic state , one that quickly reinstituted slavery. European involvement in the East African trade of enslaved people began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c.  200 enslaved people were exported from Portuguese Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for enslaved people brought from Asia to

12625-441: The rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s—including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi—tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically. Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee , grown by both smallholders and plantation estates, although migration, remittances and off-farm income is considered far more important to most households, even those in rural areas. Before

12750-418: The sacrifice of at least three chickens . However, it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony. There are three methods of burial : the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff . It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of

12875-485: The salt water. I told them that they were employed in cultivation the land; but they would not believe me ... A deeply-rooted idea that the whites purchase negroes for the purpose of devouring them, or of selling them to others that they may be devoured hereafter, naturally makes the slaves contemplate a journey towards the coast with great terror, insomuch that the slatees are forced to keep them constantly in irons, and watch them very closely, to prevent their escape. During

13000-423: The same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women—a crime punishable by death . Religion of Torajan people Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism , called aluk , or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua ,

13125-417: The slaughtered animals are given by guests as "gifts", which are carefully noted because they will be considered debts of the deceased's family. However, a cockfight , known as bulangan londong, is an integral part of the ceremony . As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs, the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth. In particular, the tradition requires

13250-504: The structure of everyday life throughout the 15th to the 18th century. "Slavery came in different guises in different societies: there were court slaves, slaves incorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves, slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries, even as traders". During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, with its trafficking of slaves from Africa to

13375-499: The surface of water. Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving (see table below), as well as abstracts and geometrical designs. Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as

13500-477: The surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people living there were enslaved. Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936. Writing in 1998 about the extent of trade coming through and from Africa, the Congolese journalist Elikia M'bokolo wrote "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across

13625-623: The terrible voyage, many during the arduous journey through the Middle Passage . The great majority were shipped to the Americas, but some also went to Europe and Southern Africa. While talking about the trade of slaves in East Africa in his journals, David Livingstone said To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility. While travelling in the African Great Lakes Region in 1866, Livingstone described

13750-415: The tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life, and therefore all family members are impelled to participate, because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin. According to Torajan myth, the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles, with a roof made of Indian cloth. When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated

13875-495: The vowels [i] , [u] , [e] , [o] and [ə] from the default inherent vowel /a/ (actually pronounced [ɔ] ) implicitly represented in all base consonant letters (including the zero-consonant a ). But unlike most other Brahmic scripts of India, the Buginese script traditionally does not have any virama sign (or alternate half-form for vowel-less consonants, or subjoined form for non-initial consonants in clusters) to suppress

14000-516: Was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige. Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of

14125-654: Was institutionalized by the time the first civilizations emerged (such as Sumer in Mesopotamia , which dates back as far as 3500 BC). Slavery features in the Mesopotamian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1750 BC), which refers to it as an established institution. Slavery was widespread in the ancient world in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Slavery became less common throughout Europe during

14250-772: Was a common practice among Africans, Turks, Berbers and Arabs during that era. However, as the Atlantic trade of slaves increased its demand, local systems which primarily serviced indentured servitude expanded. European trading of slaves, as a result, was the most pivotal change in the social, economic, cultural, spiritual, religious, political dynamics of the concept of trading in slaves. It ultimately undermined local economies and political stability as villages' vital labour forces were shipped overseas as slave raids and civil wars became commonplace. Crimes which were previously punishable by some other means became punishable by enslavement. Slavery already existed in Kingdom of Kongo prior to

14375-429: Was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles ( puang ) and thereby gain nobility for their children. However, the image of Torajan society created for the tourists, often by non-aristocratic guides, has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy. High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was. Many low-ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside

14500-542: Was common. In Mauritania it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are currently enslaved, many of them used as bonded labor . Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007. During the Darfur conflict that began in 2003, many people were kidnapped by Janjaweed and sold into slavery as agricultural labor, domestic servants and sex slaves. In Niger , slavery

14625-546: Was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved. Slavery in Ethiopia persisted until 1942. The Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million. It was finally abolished by order of emperor Haile Selassie on 26 August 1942. When British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and

14750-494: Was established by Key Coffee of Japan, and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s. Torajans, particularly younger ones, relocated to work for the foreign companies—to Kalimantan for timber and oil, to Papua for mining, to the cities of Sulawesi and Java , and many went to Malaysia . The out-migration of Torajans

14875-460: Was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap , and it was recognised in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia . Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to

15000-505: Was introduced to the Torajans by a mission from Bali, in which thousands of Torajans converted to Hinduism. That number has been increasing sharply since then. By the 1990s, when tourism peaked, Toraja society had changed significantly, from an agrarian model—in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo—to a largely Christian society. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in

15125-408: Was marketed for tourists who had gone as far as Bali and were interested in seeing more of the wild, "untouched" islands. Western tourists expected to see stone-age villages and pagan funerals. However, they were more likely to see Christian Torajans wearing NBA sports caps and denim. Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits, and complained that

15250-453: Was opposed by some Torajan leaders, as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987, the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists. This closure lasted only a few days, as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs. Tourism has also transformed Toraja society. Originally, there

15375-537: Was some social mobility , as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individual's status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes . Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from

15500-414: Was steady until 1985. and has continued since, with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy. Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s, and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1984 and 1997, a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism, working in and owning hotels, as tour guides, drivers, or selling souvenirs. With

15625-467: Was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja, and was introduced in the mid 19th century, changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market. With the commencement of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy developed and opened to foreign investment. In Toraja, a coffee plantation and factory

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