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125-654: Torkham lies at the end of the N-5 National Highway . It is connected to city of Peshawar in the east. Transported goods arrive to Torkham from the port city of Karachi in Sindh province. Torkham is 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) west of the summit of the Khyber Pass . It lies on the most important supply route for US -led NATO forces in Afghanistan. Pakistan's government sometimes block supplies due to

250-511: A British orientalist in 1822. These coins exhibit progressive debasement with time, with a regular decrease of silver content, allowing for the sequencing of the coinage. Early issues do not mention personal names but only generic titles, thereby not matching with the names found from literature. The characteristic motif of a horseman on the reverse with a bull on the obverse goes back to the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes I . A. R. Rahman of

375-568: A battalion from king Sangramaraja of the Lohara dynasty , commanded by Tunga. The face-off happened in the middle of the following year. Bhimapala initially went about exploiting the local topography of a narrow mountain-pass in his favor, and launched stinging guerrilla attacks on Mahmud's troops—to the extent of being referred to by Uth'bi as "Bhima, the Fearless", until he got confident of his numerical superiority and switched to open-warfare; in

500-578: A battle commander, wished to inflict a decisive defeat, but had to concede when Jayapala threatened to incinerate all valuables. A war indemnity of one million Shahi dirhams and fifty war elephants was agreed upon and some frontier forts were ceded to the Ghaznavids. Accordingly, Jaypala made his way back with Ghaznavid commanders who were to take charge of the ceded forts, while some of his relatives and officials were left with Sabuktigin as hostages. Once Jayapala reached his own territories, he called off

625-622: A city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-sha-pu-lo ( Chinese : 布路沙布邏, bùlùshābùló ) , and an earlier fifth-century account by Fa-Hien records the city's name as Fou-lou-sha ( Chinese : 弗樓沙, fùlóshā ) , the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura. An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be

750-602: A disastrous maneuver without consulting experienced Shahi generals, ensuring another crippling defeat coupled with a total loss of territory, west of Tausi. Rahman noted this campaign to be the death-blow for the Hindu Shahis — "it was no longer a question of whether but a question of when" the Shahis would perish. From the outset of his rule, Trilochanapala had chosen to expand into the Siwalik Hills to make up for

875-484: A few months, the entire Shahi territory to the west of the Indus had submitted to Mahmud. Jayapala was eventually released but Muslim chroniclers differ about the specifics. Unsuri , a court-poet of Mahmud notes that he was sold in the slave market; Minhaj ad-din and al-Malik Isami adds a price of 80 dirhams. Others like al-Ansab note that Mahmud had rejected his request for pardon but allowed him to be free in lieu of

1000-526: A height of 400 ft (120 m). In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it was in conflict with nearby Kapisa . The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE, after Kapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin —although some monks studying Theravada Buddhism continued to study at

1125-460: A large army, supplanted with neighboring troops under the commandership of his son, Trilochanapala, who arrived in the plains of Chach but failed to prevent Mahmud's troops from crossing across the Indus. The Battle of Chach ended with the defeat of the Hindu Shahis. Mahmud chased the fugitive troops for months, seizing Nagarkot to collect his war-spoils, in the process and even took a son of Anandapala as hostage. Governors were installed across

1250-563: A patron of scholars though texts from his court are not extant. Circa April 1006, Mahmud requested Anandapala to consent to the passage of his troops via his territories to reach Daud , the ruler of Multan. He declined the request and even went to the extent of stationing troops on the banks of Indus to prevent Mahmud's crossing, an enraged Mahmud waged a cataclysmic war upon the Shahis and compelled Anandapala to escape to Kashmir before eventually finishing his original objective of conquering Multan. All these territories of "Hind" were left under

1375-502: A payment of 2.5 million dirhams and 50 war-elephants around March 1002, which Rahman finds more likely. Jayapala returned to Hund and immolated himself in a pyre after abdicating the throne in favor of Anandapala. Anandapala ascended to the throne around April 1002. His capital city remains unknown but was likely Nandan. Anandapala had entered into marital relations with Tunga, the prime-minister of Didda , then-ruler of Kashmir and had at least two sons. He commanded significant fame as

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1500-483: A precarious state and in c.  843 CE , the last ruler Lagaturman was deposed by one of his ministers, a Brahmin vazir called Kallar. The sole description of events comes from Al-Biruni: Lagatarman's unbecoming manners had led his subjects to lodge multiple complaints with Kallar, who having chanced upon a treasure trove, was rapidly purchasing his way to power. Kallar imprisoned the King for corruption and became

1625-475: A productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit. Timur Shah's grandson, Mahmud Shah Durrani , became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, Shah Shujah Durrani . Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape. In 1809, the British sent an emissary to

1750-454: A punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces. Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute, while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India. Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed

1875-540: A reference to Peshawar. The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid-tenth century, the city was known as Parashāwar . The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al-Biruni . The city began to be known as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar . The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for "frontier town" or, more literally, "forward city", though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for

2000-678: A reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors. The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa —bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's Lahore Durbar . An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy

2125-420: A series of coins. As has been the case with previous rulers, there is a lack of information including about his actual name, course of rule and eventual fate. The unavailability of his coins in or around Gandhara points to his lack of control over the region, which did not come into contact with Ya'qub's expeditions and were likely held by Samanta's relatives. Lalliya was the first Shahi noted by Kalhana , he

2250-494: A successional dispute, leading many to suggest that the same family was not ruling anymore. Rahman disagrees that there exist sufficient evidence in favor of such a hypothesis or conclusion. One Vijayapaladeva (r. 942 or 963) is obtained from the Ratnamanjari Inscription where he is held to be the 'supreme sovereign' or ' Maharajadhiraja ' . Rahman proposed that Vijayapaladeva had to have either belonged to

2375-454: A summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced, with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion. Peshawar's Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s. Peshawar was at the centre of

2500-516: A total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries. Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindkowan and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as xāryān ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of

2625-455: A trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586. Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar . In July 1526, Emperor Babur captured Peshawar from Daulat Khan Lodi . During Babur's rule,

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2750-410: Is 20.3 °C, while the annual precipitation averages 407 mm. June is the driest month with an average rainfall of 8 mm, while the wettest month is March, with an average 82 mm of precipitation. June is the hottest month of the year with an average temperature of 31.0 °C. The coldest month January has an average temperature of 8.4 °C. This Khyber District location article

2875-466: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Peshawar This is an accepted version of this page Peshawar ( / p ə ˈ ʃ ɑː w ər / ; Pashto : پېښور [peˈχəwər] ; Hindko : پشور ; [pɪˈʃɔːɾ] ; Urdu : پشاور [pɪˈʃɑːʋər] ) is the capital and largest city of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . It

3000-417: Is a mass of complete merit here on earth, there is (a city) by name Udabhandra , which has been made their home by learned men forming communities, just as Meru (was made their home) by the immortal (gods) and other (supernatural beings)... ...Therein dwelt the chief of kings, Bhīma, of terrible valour (or with valour like that of Bhīma , the legendary hero), by whom, having conquered his enemies' troops,

3125-498: Is depicted as a great ruler with enormous strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of Udabhanda , a change from the previous capital of Kabul . Ya'qub is not known to have annexed or invaded the country of Gandhara and it is assumed by Rehman that it was under the kingship of Lalliya. Khudrayaka, the Saffarid governor of Kabul, is noted to have ended his reign in 880 CE, however it

3250-567: Is most significant for vanquishing the Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests. Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed Ghaznavid Empire , however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala, the kingdom of Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in

3375-470: Is noted to have deserted his posts by then. In 1021, Trilochanapala, by then a ruler of little significance in all probabilities, was assassinated by his mutinous Hindu troops for reasons unknown. Bhimapala, who must have escaped the Rais sometime in between, succeeded him and continued to rule until 1026; nothing is known about his rule or territories. Adab al-harb —a manual of state-craft produced during

3500-584: Is relatively abundant but only provides snippets of trivia. The language is exclusively Sharda . A samvat is mentioned in all of them whose zero year is understood to correspond to 822 C.E. based on the Zalamkot Bilingual Inscription; it has been assumed to be initiated by Kallar on his coronation, as was typically the case for most Hindu dynasties of medieval India. Copper land grants etc. are yet to be documented. The 10th century Arab historian Masudi mentioned that in his time

3625-587: Is the sixth most populous city of Pakistan , with a district population of over 4.7 million in the 2023 census. It is situated in the north-west of the country, lying in the Valley of Peshawar . Peshawar is primarily populated by Pashtuns , who comprise the second-largest ethnic group in the country. Situated in the Valley of Peshawar, a broad area situated east of the historic Khyber Pass , Peshawar's recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE, making it one of

3750-416: Is unknown what arrangements Ya'qub made for the governance of Kabul after his victory and imprisonment of the then ruler; we only have Tarikh-i Sistan noting that Kabul was under an unnamed Ya'qub governor as late as 878/879. It is speculated that this governor was some blood relation of Samanta who was favorably inclined to Islam and went on to take the title of Khudarayaka (Small King) as ascertainable from

3875-713: Is unknown what brought about his downfall. It is assumed Lalliya was implicated as when Kabul is next mentioned in 900 CE, it is described as reverting back as Shahi territory. Amr ibn al-Layth succeeded Yaqub as the Amr of the Saffarid dynasty in 879 CE. The Tarikh-i Sistan records 'two Indian kings', reconstructed as Toramana and Asata described as governors and sons of Lalliya, are stated to have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth 's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan and to have successfully invaded Ghazni in 900 CE, defeating

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4000-448: Is unknown whether Anandapala's offer was accepted but Mahmud stalled his chase of Ilaq Khan and turned his attention to the Shahis; Sukhapala offered negligible resistance before fleeing into Kashmur from where he was captured, fined, and imprisoned to death. It is likely that Anandapala was installed as the next Ghaznavid vassal. C. December 1008, Mahmud mounted an invasion of Hindu Shahis for reasons which are not clear. Anandapala sent

4125-548: The Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tamid from Kabul however it not clear whether this is indicative of the city or of the Kabul valley , though according to Rehman the latter was most probable. The Rawżat aṣ-ṣafāʾ states that the ruler of Kabul was made prisoner though it is not clear whether this was Samanta. The region was in Saffarid control until 878 CE before being recaptured by Lalliya, the successor to Samanta. It

4250-585: The Doab entered into treaties with one another and with the Hindu Shahis to ward off future invasions of a similar scale. Mahmud did not take kindly to these alliances and returned in October 1019. Trilochanapala's men were tasked by Vidyadhara of Chandela to prevent Mahmud's troops from crossing across the Ramganga (somewhere around Bulandshahr ) and they took positions at the eastern bank but failed to execute

4375-521: The Durrani Empire . Before that, the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan. When Raghunathrao , Malhar Rao Holkar and Sikh alliance of Charat Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia left Peshawar, Tukoji Rao Holkar was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub-continent. Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals. Following

4500-757: The Hindu Shahis , before the arrival of a variety of Muslim empires . The city was an important trading Centre of the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747, after which it served as the Durrani winter capital from 1776 until the capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in 1823. In 1849, the city was captured by the East India Company and subsequently became part of British Raj , under whose rule it remained until

4625-473: The Partition of British India and subsequent independence of Pakistan in 1947. The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" ( Sanskrit : पुरूषपुर Puruṣapura , meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha"). It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar , the meaning of which Akbar did not understand. The ruler of

4750-613: The Peshawar Museum ) in memory of Queen Victoria . The British introduced Western-style education into Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913, along with several schools run by the Anglican Church . For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901, The North-West Frontier Province

4875-714: The Quaid-i-Azam University and Ahmad Hasan Dani did rudimentary field surveys in the late 1960s. Afterwards, the Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan (IAMP) extensively surveyed the regions in and around Swat . In 1996, Khan and Meister obtained a license from Department of Archaeology for an "integrated study of Hindu-Śāhi sites"; excavation at Kafir-kot and field-surveys of the Salt Range were engaged in with aid from

5000-621: The Samanids and sometime after 913 CE, the power vacuum led to the rise of a friendly power in the Ghazna province, the Lawik dynasty , which flourished until 962 CE and engaged in marital ties with the Hindu Shahis. There are various unsubstantiated speculations regarding the end date of Kamaluka's reign, ranging from 900 to 950. Mentioned as 'Bhima' in Al-Biruni 's list, and identified with

5125-631: The Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company . The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule. During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed; the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that

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5250-642: The Seleucid Empire . A locally-made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles ' play Antigone . Following the Seleucid–Mauryan war , the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE. Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura (ancient Peshawar) was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to

5375-602: The South Asia and Central Asia and a strategic military location. The adjacent town on the other side of border in Afghanistan is also known as Torkham. Torkham was the first point of entry into Pakistan for many of the 3.5 million Afghans who fled the Soviet invasion as refugees. With an influence from the local steppe climate, Torkham features a hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSh ). The average temperature in Torkham

5500-693: The Turk Shahis in 815 CE who had invaded Khorasan. Following this defeat, the Turk Shahis not only had to convert to Islam but also had to cede key cities and regions. Another campaign against the Gandhara branch seems to have followed soon, with the Caliphate reaching as far East as the Indus river and imposing a critical defeat. A hefty annual tribute was to be paid in return for sovereignty rights to both territories. The Turk Shahis ended up in

5625-792: The University of Pennsylvania and the American Institute of Pakistan Studies. Inscriptions remain scarce. Mostly found in Udabhanda , they either commemorate the commissioning of temples or are affixed at the base of idol-pedestals. Of the former kind— Mir Ali Inscription, Dewal Inscription, Dewai Inscription, Ratnamanjari Inscription, Veka Inscription, Hund Stone Inscription, Kamesvaridevi Inscription, Barikot Inscription, and Isvara Inscription—most are disfigured to various extents due to their use as grinding stones in medieval times and are decipherable only in parts. The latter kind

5750-578: The Śri Bhīmadeva coin series, Bhimadeva was one of the most accomplished rulers of the Hindu Shahis along side Lalliya. His rise to power was concurrent with the growth of neighboring Hindu kingdoms such as that of the Pala Empire . According to the Khajuraho stone inscription, the Kangra Valley was under the authority of a Shahi king assumed to be Bhimadeva, and it is further presumed that

5875-612: The 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter-Services Intelligence -trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees . It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province, with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981. The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure, and drastically altered

6000-555: The Afridi Revolt of the 1670s. The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes. Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674. Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I , former Governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following

6125-550: The American use of drone strikes in Pakistan , and for security reasons after firing from the Afghan side against Pakistani construction workers building a border fence. By the end of 2018, Pakistan had completed a 486 kilometer portion of the border fence around Torkham to seal the porous border in order to curb arms smuggling, illegal migration, and drug trafficking. Throughout history it has been an important trade route between

6250-569: The Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession was en route to Dargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee , with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob. Riots ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlying tribal regions who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting " Maro Hindu Ko " (Kill the Hindus). Estimates detail the riots resulted in

6375-501: The Hindu Shahis. Al-Biruni notes that Samanta was the successor of Kallar and may have been his son, but their genealogical relationship is left undescribed. Like in the case of Kallar, there is a total lack of information on his rule or even his actual name and he seems to have replicated the Turk Shahi system of producing no name on their coinage. The Samanta series prototype was followed by all future Hindu Shahi rulers and even

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6500-410: The Hindu Shahis. Rahman speculates that either their Brahmin affiliation was a late rumor floated to justify their original usurpation of the throne, or they were fallen Brahmins, who ran afoul of caste-rules while discharging royal duties. According to André Wink , all other sources state the Shahis as Kshatriyas . Rahman accepted folklore among current inhabitants of Hund about pre-Muslim kings of

6625-636: The Kabul branch or had been a local Shahi feudatory. Khaw disagrees and instead equates Vijayapaladeva with one Thakkana Sahi, mentioned by Kalhana as a rebel who had to be captured by Queen Didda of Kashmir. For Khaw, this identification fits within the narrative of Muslim sources; Jayapala ascended only after this threat was neutralized. Bilgetegin succeeded Abu Ishaq Ibrahim on the occasion of his death in November 966, and ruled for about nine years, before being assassinated during his invasion of Gardiz ,

6750-826: The Muslim Ghaznavids, who succeeded the Hindu Shahis. In 870 CE, Ya'qub ibn al-Layth , the founder of the recently formed Saffarid dynasty marched onto Kabul . According to the Tarikh-i Sistan , the Saffarids had come into conflict with the zunbil dynasty based in modern day Ghazni and after having defeated them, a son of the Zunbils had fled into the area corresponding to Kabul resulting in Yaqub's invasion. It has been attested to by numerous sources that Ya'qub had brought forth idols and elephants to

6875-408: The Saffarid governor named as Fardaghin, though the Tarikh does not make it clear whether it was the region of Zabulistan or of the city. Kalhana notes that Lalliya was a significant ally of the Gujrati ruler Alakhana against the machinations of the Utpala dynasty , whose ruler Samkaravarman invaded the Hindu Shahis c. 902 CE, however Kalhana further states that Lalliya's 'mighty glory outshone

7000-438: The Shahi to be an infidel, proclaimed his absolute devotion to Sabuktigin and pledged to attack Jayapala upon release. Around the same time, Jayapala was challenged by Bharat, a Raja of Lahore who wished to wrest control of Nandana , Jailam and Takeshar. Anandapala, then Governor of Punjab and son of Jayapala, was ordered to intercept Bharat's forces and in the ensuing battle, Bharat was imprisoned and Lahore annexed; however

7125-415: The Shahis, allegedly resolving to invade their territories every year. In what was the last battle of his life, Jayapala met with Mahmud in the Battle of Peshawar on 27 September 1001; one Shahi governor of the Bardari province named Adira Afghan is held to have switched sides and aided in the safe and quick passage of Mahmud's troops across Shahi provinces. Mahmud saw through Jayapala's tactics of delaying

7250-480: The Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor. By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined, with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields. Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces, as well as

7375-420: The Sikhs. British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand , foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan. The British built Cunningham clock tower in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria , and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall (now home of

7500-449: The acting regent before usurping the throne permanently. The new "Hindu Shahi" dynasty was thus established in Gandhara . None apart from Al-Biruni mentions Kallar; nothing is known about his rule or territorial extent or even his regnal dates. Historians such as that of Alexander Cunningham suggest that coin series bearing the obverse title 'Spalapati' ('Warlord) were minted by Kallar. According to Edward Clive Bayley 's misreading of

7625-407: The aim of waging holy war against the Lawik dynasty and the Hindu Shahis. The Lawik king fled to the Shahi domain in hopes of gaining re-inforcements to conquer the lost territory and in c. 963 Bhimadeva was successful in capturing Ghazni . This victory is engraved in the Hund Slab Inscription dated to c. 989 CE during the reign of the succeeding Shahi Jayapala. ...To the north of the Indus, which

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7750-436: The area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal. On 28 November 1001, Sabuktigin's son Mahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army of Raja Jayapala , son of Anandpal, at the Battle of Peshawar , and established rule of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region. During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore . During

7875-413: The armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar, and severely damaged Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar. Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery. The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled, as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of

8000-476: The battle in a state of panic once Sandbal was assassinated by a Turk archer. He seemed to have been based around the Siwaliks and might have been a Shahi heir — many contemporary Muslim chronicles do mention a Hindu triumvirate to have unsuccessfully attacked the Ghaznavids around the same time but mention only two of the names, both petty Siwalik chieftains and not Sandbal. Some Shahis migrated into Kashmir and gained prominent positions in their court. Shaivism

8125-549: The city be spared in lieu of a negotiated peace treaty. Mahmud rejected the request and sacked Thanesar with an uneventful passage via Shahi territories. However, as a consequence or otherwise, Trilochanapala soon stopped paying the annual tributes to Mahmud and declared war. In November 1013, Mahmud progressed towards Hind to contain Trilochanapala but failed to make it across the snow-laden passes. Taking advantage of this delay, Trilochanapala tasked his son Bhimapala with arranging Shahi troops and went to Kashmir, where he received

8250-536: The city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja (king) named Purush; the word pur means "city" in Sanskrit. Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period. The city's name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers," Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar . Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang 's seventh-century account of

8375-434: The city of Bhimanagar in present day Kangra was named after him. The Rajatarangini states that Bhima's daughter was married to the Lohara dynasty king of Kashmir, and his grand-daughter noted as Didda became the Queen and last ruler of the Utpala dynasty . In the final years of Bhima's reign in c. 962, Alp-Tegin , a rebel Turkish chief of the Samanid Empire , had annexed the regions of Zabulistan and Kabul with

8500-484: The city was known as Begram , and he rebuilt the city's fort. Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns in Pashtunistan . Under the reign of Babur's son, Humayun , direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, Sher Shah Suri , who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on Sher Shah Suri's Grand Trunk Road. During Akbar's rule,

8625-429: The city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses. Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs. The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city. Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845–46 and

8750-514: The city's demography. Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group, Tehrik-i-Taliban . Local poets' shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban , a suicide bomb attack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children. Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010, which had declined to 18 in 2014, before

8875-441: The city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city", as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass . Akbar's bibliographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak , lists the city's name as both Parashāwar , transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر , and Peshāwar ( پشاور ). Peshawar alongside

9000-483: The city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura. On 21 March 1910, however, rumors of musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Haripur being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping the procession . Despite Muslim and Hindu community leaders calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at

9125-481: The city. Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion, but the city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE. The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE, and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries. The Kanishka stupa

9250-491: The conflict in the hope of receiving reinforcements and declared war immediately. Soon, the Shahis were in a state of disarray with Jayapala and fifteen of his relatives taken as prisoners. About one million Shahi forces were taken as slaves. The war-spoils awed contemporary chroniclers: the royal necklaces alone were valued at over six million Shahi dirhams. Mahmud continued his raid as far as Hund , as his forces chased fleeing troops and decimated pockets of resistance. Within

9375-400: The conquered provinces and Mahmud would return to Ghazni. This would be the last military conflict of Anandapala; the next year, Anandapala sent an embassy to Mahmud. The proposal of peace was accepted and in return, Hindu Shahis were to accept tributary status, provide (limited) military support, guarantee passage of troops, and remit an annual tribute. Mahmud sent his own agents to oversee

9500-460: The corrupted remains of a Bactrian legend as Arabic numerals, he proposed that another series of coins bearing the legend 'Samanta' ('Feudatory') were also minted by Kallar. He argued the 'Spalapati' series to have been minted for circulation in Persian regions of his territory and the 'Samanta' series for Sanskrit -speaking regions. and it has been adduced that Kallar may have felt insecure about

9625-624: The court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans. His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823. The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758 when Maratha Confederacy in alliance with the Sikhs , defeated

9750-673: The death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened. On 18 November 1738, Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the Afsharid armies during the Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire under Nader Shah . In 1747, Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani , founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire . Under the reign of his son Timur Shah , the Mughal practice of using Kabul as

9875-430: The demonstrators . In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar. The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into

10000-702: The downfall of the empire in 1026 CE. No literature survives from Hindu Shahi courts. Unlike the case of Turk Shahis, only fragmented information can be obtained from chronicles of neighboring powers — Kashmir and Ghaznavi . Of the former, Kalhana's Rajatarangini (1148-1149) is the only extant source. Of the latter, there are Tārīkh al-Hind by Al-Biruni (c. 1030), Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī by Abu'l-Faḍl Bayhaqi (c. late 11th century), Zayn al-Akhbar by Abu Sa'id Gardezi , and Kitab-i Yamini by al-Utbi (c. 1020). The Hindu Shahis issued silver jital coinage which underwent wide circulation from nearby Sindh to northeastern Europe. They were first "discovered" by James Tod ,

10125-426: The earth was protected... ...The king of that (country) is (now) Jayapaladeva, who, through his body, origin, and birth, has become the sole hero, whose very pure fame, having left heaven, has attained the eternal abode of Brahman.... Bhima's death is chronologically placed within the span of 964 to 965 CE. The Hund Slab Inscription attributes his passing to him 'burning himself through Shivas desire but not through

10250-623: The empire's capital at Pataliputra , near the city of Patna in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar . As Mauryan power declined, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized ancient Peshawar around 190 BCE. The city was then captured by Gondophares , founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom . Gondophares established

10375-401: The enemy lines repeatedly using light attacks and followed them with an all-out assault, routing the Shahis who had to flee beyond the Indus despite their overwhelming numerical superiority. The entire span of territory up to Peshawar was lost, and Sabuktigin installed his own tax-collectors; local tribes were ordained into Ghaznavid arms too. A ribāṭ was commissioned at Kindi to commemorate

10500-529: The enforcement of the peace treaty and within a year, normal trade relations had resumed. The death of Anandapala is not recorded in any chronicle; however, it can be ascertained to be c. late 1010 - early 1011. The fate of the son taken back to Ghazni remains unknown. Al-Biruni held that Trilochanapala had a favorable attitude towards Muslim subjects, unlike his father. Trilochanapala did not dishonor Anandapala's treaty, but when Mahmud wished to march towards Thanesar via Hindu Shahi territories, he proposed that

10625-595: The fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains. Hindu Shahis The Hindu Shahis , also referred to as the Kabul Shahis and Uḍi Śāhis , were a dynasty established between 843 CE and 1026 CE. They endured multiple waves of conquests for nearly two centuries and their core territory was described as having contained

10750-456: The governorship of a certain Sukhapala, a neo-convert. However, a couple of years hence, Sukhapala renounced Islam (c. late 1006) and declared rebellion. At this juncture, Anandapala tried to make space for himself by promising to aid Mahmud in containing Turk rebellions at the other side of his empire; apparently, he did not want a ruler who had defeated him, to be defeated by another. It

10875-538: The kings of Gandhara were all called " [REDACTED] " (which has been variously read Hajaj , J.haj or Ch'hach ), Elliot transliterated the character to "Hahaj" and Cunningham had it equated to the Janjua tribe/clan , who were held to be descendants of the Rouran Khaganate . Rahman doubts this theory and instead transliterates to "J.haj", an Arabicised form of Chhachh , while the area of Gandhara itself

11000-469: The kings of the north'. Samkaravarman was killed by a stray arrow in Hazara , with scholars stating Lalliya's role in his death. A year later, his successor Gopalavarman re-invaded Shahi territory to depose a rebellious Shahi, and installed Lalliya's son Toramana with the new name of "Kamaluka". Rajat., v, 232-33: As superintendent of the treasury he (Prabhakaradeva, the prime minister of Gopalavarman -

11125-547: The last bastion of the Lawiks. His successor Piri was described as a drunkard whose oppressive rule led the citizens of Ghazna to request the return of Lawik. Lawik mounted yet another expedition with help from the "son of Kabul Shah" and met the Muslim forces in the area of Charkh . Both breathed their last in the war and the Muslim forces imposed an overwhelming victory, despite their numerical inferiority. Sabuktigin became

11250-531: The late 15th and 16th centuries. The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan . Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes. Its importance as

11375-578: The later seventh century. As the first Pashtun tribe to settle the region, the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar, and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century. The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known as Parashāwar . In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded

11500-413: The launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb , which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people on 4 March 2022. In January 2023, another terrorist attack occurred at Peshawar in which 100 people were killed. Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with

11625-481: The legitimacy of his rule as long as the imprisoned Turk Shahi ruler Lagaturman was alive, and hence affirmed his claim to leadership by such indirect titles. The 'Spalapati' series may also have been minted by the last Turk Shahi rulers instead as 'Pati Dumi', who was defeated by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun , is described by Al-Azraqi and Al-Biruni as an 'Ispahbadh' ('Warlord'), equivalent to

11750-525: The mayhem that followed this tactical blunder, the Shahis were routed and Bhima had to flee. The fortress at Nandana was sacked for war-spoils and a Ghaznavid governor was installed, while Mahmud went searching for Trilochanapala. Trilochanpala, in the meantime, had set up his base with Kashmiri forces on the banks of the Poonch River . An initial round of success against a Ghaznavid reconnaissance party contributed to Tunga's pride and he then mounted

11875-496: The modern day Ghandara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati. Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura , on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE. It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush. The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE, within the cultural sphere of ancient India . Puruṣapura

12000-511: The monastery's ruins. Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital. Until the mid seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent, who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul. Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist , Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in

12125-544: The name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar . In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan , founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement , who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587. Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during

12250-565: The nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE. In the first century of the Common era , Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises , founder of the Kushan Empire . The city was made the empire's winter capital. The Kushan's summer capital at Kapisi (modern Bagram , Afghanistan ) was seen as the secondary capital of the empire, while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital. Ancient Peshawar's population

12375-399: The nobility of Lahore pleaded on behalf of their old King, who was reinstated as a feudatory after payment of tributes. About a year hence, Bharat's son Chandrak deposed him on the grounds of waging an ill-thought-out campaign against the Shahis, and became the new feudatory. For reasons which are not clear, c. 998-999 (eight years after the usurpation), Jayapala declared war against Lahore on

12500-658: The oldest cities in South Asia. The area encompassing modern-day Peshawar is mentioned in the Vedic scriptures; it was one of the principal cities of the ancient Gāndhāra . Peshawar served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka and was home to the Kanishka Stupa , which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites , followed by

12625-529: The pretext of protecting his suzerain Bharat and dispatched Anandapala. Chandrak was ambushed and kidnapped around the battleground of Samutla, and Lahore was annexed by the Shahis. Rahman speculates that the Shahis were trying to balance their losses to the Ghaznavids using any pretext. In 998 CE, Mahmud ascended the Ghaznavid throne at Ghazni, and went on an annexation spree. Soon, Mahmud turned his eyes on

12750-523: The region belonging to the Hodi tribe, and proposed an Odi origin for the Hindu Shahis belonging to Oddiyana , a region in Gandhara . He also pointed to the famous Senvarma inscription as evidence in support and suggested Odi Shahis or Uḍi Śāhis as an accurate name for the dynasty. Meister found Rahman's arguments to be convincing. The Abbasids led by caliph Al-Ma'mun defeated the Kabul branch of

12875-471: The regions of Eastern Afghanistan and Gandhara , encompassing the area up to the Sutlej river in modern day Punjab , expanding into the Kangra Valley . The empire was founded by Kallar in c.  843 CE after overthrowing Lagaturman, the last Turk Shahi king. The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it

13000-589: The reign of Shah Jahan , which no longer exist. Emperor Aurangzeb 's Governor of Kabul, Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famous Mohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630. Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667, and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock . Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during

13125-602: The successor of Samkaravarman ) plundered the riches of the amorous (queen) and vanquished the Sahi kingdom at Udabhanda. He bestowed the kingdom of the rebellious Sahi upon Toramana, Lilliya's son, and gave him the (new) name Kamaluka. Nothing definite is known about the reign of the Hindu Shahi ruler Kamaluka, except that he was succeeded by his son, Bhimadeva. Concurrent to his reign, the Saffarids rapidly lost their power to

13250-479: The task. Subsequently, Trilochanapala planned to move away, probably to join Vidyadhara's forces for the main faceoff, but a swift charge by Mahmud's troops inflicted yet another resounding defeat. Bulandshahr was sacked and two of his wives and daughters imprisoned. He tried to enter into a peace-treaty but in vain, causing him to flee to Vidyadhara. It is not known whether he made it to the camp but Vidyadhara

13375-712: The tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis, who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics. In 1179–80, Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols . Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate . The Ghoryakhel Pashtuns Khalil, Muhmands, Daudzai, Chamkani tribes and some Khashi Khel Pashtuns , ancestors of modern-day Yusufzai and Gigyani Pashtuns, began settling rural regions around Peshawar in

13500-416: The terrible enemy', suggesting a ritualistic suicide, and the absence of any noted political setbacks further supports the inference that his death occurred under such circumstances. In c.965 CE Ghazni was recaptured from the Lawik dynasty by Abu Ishaq , the successor of Alp-Tegin, after Bhimas death. Bhimadeva's successors would all have the surname of "Pala", and Muslim sources give hazy indications of

13625-514: The territories lost in his predecessors' conflicts with the Ghaznavids: this brought him into multiple conflicts with Chandar Rai of Sharwa . But the fatal encounter with Mahmud ensured that Trilochanapala had nowhere but the Siwaliks to retreat into and compelled him to enter into a peace treaty, even offering his son to be married to the daughter of Chandar. The offer was accepted but Bhima

13750-559: The time that Peshawar was under British rule. Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan , a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi . In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Army opened fire on

13875-530: The times of Iltutmish , which contains a host of unique information about the Ghaznavids—note that in 1040, one Sandbal, a grandson of the Kabul Shah, marched towards Lahore seeking to utilize the imprisonment of Masʽud I and resulting political instability to his favor. The armies met at Qadar Jur (var. Qalachur) and despite the Shahis having numerical superiority, they were defeated as their troops left

14000-511: The title Spalapati. Rahman therefore believes that Kallar did not initiate any changes in the currency system of the last Turk Shahis and the Samanta series was minted by succeeding Hindu Shahi rulers. Numismatist and historian Michael Alram 's publications take note of this view; however some scholars attribute the entirety of the bull/horserider coinage, including the Spalapati series, to

14125-458: The treaty and threw the commanders into prison, hoping to force Sabuktigin into exchanging hostages. Sabuktigin refused to believe that the treaty had been breached, but once it was established beyond doubt, he plundered the frontier town of Lamghan : temples were demolished and houses burnt down. In response, Jayapala secured troops from unidentified Rajas, and met with the Ghaznavids near Kindi (modern day Kandibagh ?). The Ghaznavids breached

14250-564: The undisputed leader of the Ghazni region, as he would go on to overthrow Piri. Kabul was lost forever and the foundation stone of the Ghaznavid Empire was cast. In 986–987, Jayapala marched towards Ghazni and met with Sabuktigin 's forces at Ghuzak. The war remained largely inconclusive for days before the tide turned against the Shahis: Jayapala was forced to propose a peace treaty. Mahmud , son of Sabuktigin and

14375-591: The university. Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union , with the 1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail . During the Soviet–Afghan War in

14500-558: The victory. However, Peshawar and adjacent regions returned to the Shahis sometime soon, probably during what would be a long interlude in the Ghaznavid-Shahi conflict. Circa 990–991, Mahmud would be imprisoned by his father Sabuktigin on grounds of fomenting a rebellion. Jayapala probably tried to leverage the rift in his favor by promising to rescue Mahmud, marry off his daughter to him, and further, allot sufficient wealth and troops. Mahmud did not respond favorably and noting

14625-622: Was called "country of the Rahbūt " (Rājpūt) which is even today the name of the region around the Hindu Shahi capital of Hund . In the 10th century, this region was occupied by the tribe of the Gakhars and Khokhars , who formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta . Al-Biruni , a contemporary, claimed that the Shahis were Brahmins . However this goes against Masudi's statement, as well as against Kalhana, whose contemporaneous Kshatriyas staked descent from

14750-526: Was during his reign that the region of Kabul was lost to the Persianate Saffarid empire . Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing the region of Zabulistan . He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with Samkaravarman of the Utpala dynasty , resulting in his victory and the latter's death in Hazara . Bhimadeva, the next notable ruler,

14875-428: Was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time. As a devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery. After his death, the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king, Vasudeva I . Around 260 CE,

15000-513: Was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident. The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters. Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by

15125-517: Was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati , near present-day Charsadda . In the winter of 327–26 BCE , Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley , as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys. Following Alexander's conquest, the Valley of Peshawar came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator , founder of

15250-478: Was imprisoned when he went to bring the bride home and Chandar asked for reparations. This brought an end to Trilochanapala's imperial ambitions in the Lower Himalayas for the time being though stray conflicts continued. When Mahmud sacked Sharwa while returning from his Kanauj campaign (c. 1017), Trilochanapala is noted to have taken refuge with Paramara Bhoja . Sometime soon, significant polities in

15375-453: Was practised by the Hindu Shahis and likely was also the predominant religion; Saura was practised by some subjects, as were Buddhism and Islam . Kabul exported cotton clothing and indigo. Ibn Hawqal mentions the high quality cotton and wool industries during Shahi reign in which exports to China and Khorusan were noted. Silver ore was also smelted in Andarab and mining occurring in

15500-511: Was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base, and crowned with a 13-layer copper- gilded chatra . In the 400s CE, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" in the "terrestrial world" , which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall, though modern estimates suggest

15625-628: Was separated from Punjab Province in 1901, after which Peshawar became capital of the new province. Communal riots broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annual Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat , the annual Muslim day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds of looted businesses and injuries. A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of

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