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104-478: The translation for the official teaser trailer from the constructed Na'vi language is the following: "I am the last living member of the Anurai clan. When I connect with Eywa, I hear the voices of our distant ancestors; I hear the time when their lives were threatened. This is that story." Toruk is the central character of the show and is brought to life as a life-sized puppet, along with Pandoran animals such as

208-400: A hobby , or in connection to worldbuilding . The expression planned language is sometimes used to indicate international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication. Some prefer it to the adjective artificial , as this term may be perceived as pejorative. Outside Esperanto culture , the term language planning means the prescriptions given to

312-614: A subscript version of a katakana symbol that begins with the desired consonant. An example of an original script includes the development of the Armenian script in 405 AD by St. Mesrop Mashtots . Though the script was modeled after the Greek alphabet , it distinguished Armenian from the Greek and Syriac alphabets of the neighboring peoples. Likewise, in the early 19th century, Sequoyah (Cherokee) designed an orthography for Cherokee in

416-432: A work of fiction . A constructed language may also be referred to as an artificial , planned or invented language , or (in some cases) a fictional language . Planned languages (or engineered languages / engelangs ) are languages that have been purposefully designed; they are the result of deliberate, controlling intervention and are thus of a form of language planning . There are many possible reasons to create

520-582: A "natural language" ( Natursprache ) of the senses. Musical languages from the Renaissance were often tied up with mysticism , magic and alchemy , sometimes also referred to as the language of the birds . A non-mystic musical language was Solresol . The 17th century saw the rise of projects for "philosophical" or "a priori" languages, such as: These early taxonomic conlangs produced systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression. Leibniz had

624-472: A Ká/Zumanity/O vegas-show, they will be disappointed because the energy level is at an immensely low point." Gulf News wrote that the show "is a visually ambitious piece of entertainment, with 40 projectors creating a world that feels alive — movements, sounds and scents included ... Overall, the show does not occupy itself with continuous acrobatic acts that will leave your heart lodged in your throat. Instead, it lends itself to onstage transformations, where

728-432: A change in government planning, but again reinstated in 1996. Even with national intercultural bilingual education programs, teachers at local schools and members of the community often prefer using Spanish, destabilizing support for bilingual education. This underscores the importance of community support as a goal for the education sector as mentioned earlier. Some believe that due to Spanish's higher national prestige, it

832-520: A community of conlangers with its own customs, such as translation challenges and translation relays , and its own terminology. Sarah Higley reports from results of her surveys that the demographics of the Conlang list are primarily men from North America and western Europe, with a smaller number from Oceania, Asia, the Middle East, and South America, with an age range from thirteen to over sixty;

936-448: A constructed language is that if it was constructed to be a natural language for use by fictional foreigners or aliens, as with Dothraki and High Valyrian in the Game of Thrones series, which was adapted from the A Song of Ice and Fire book series, the language should be easily pronounced by actors, and should fit with and incorporate any fragments of the language already invented by

1040-501: A constructed language is the telescope rule, which claims that it takes less time to first learn a simple constructed language and then a natural language, than to learn only a natural language. Thus, if someone wants to learn English, some suggest learning Basic English first. Constructed languages like Esperanto and Interlingua are in fact often simpler due to the typical lack of irregular verbs and other grammatical quirks. Some studies have found that learning Esperanto helps in learning

1144-429: A constructed language, such as to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code ); to give fiction or an associated constructed setting an added layer of realism; for experimentation in the fields of linguistics , cognitive science , and machine learning ; for artistic creation ; for fantasy role-playing games ; and for language games . Some people may also make constructed languages as

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1248-444: A diverse literacy program gives students diverse perspectives on life, which could only enhance their educational experience. Before 1975, Peru had bilingual education programs, but Quechua was not taught as a subject in primary and secondary schools. After the 1975 education reform, Quechua and Spanish both had standing in bilingual programs, but only in restricted speech communities. These experimental programs were then canceled due to

1352-401: A few. For example, if a government chooses to raise the status level of a certain language or change its level of prestige, it can establish a law which requires teachers to teach only in this language or that textbooks are written using only this language's script. This, in turn, would support the elevation of the language's status or could increase its prestige. In this way, acquisition planning

1456-595: A first language ". A member of the Klingon Language Institute , d'Armond Speers , attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) Klingon speaker. As soon as a constructed language has a community of fluent speakers, especially if it has numerous native speakers, it begins to evolve and hence loses its constructed status. For example, Modern Hebrew and its pronunciation norms were developed from existing traditions of Hebrew , such as Mishnaic Hebrew and Biblical Hebrew following

1560-422: A general Sephardic pronunciation, rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of Israel was founded in 1948 (Hetzron 1990:693). However, linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that Modern Hebrew, which he terms "Israeli", is a Semito-European hybrid based not only on Hebrew but also on Yiddish and other languages spoken by revivalists. Zuckermann therefore endorses

1664-431: A language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one dialect is chosen, it comes to be perceived as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language. Choosing the standard language has important social consequences, as it benefits the speakers whose spoken and written dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The chosen standard is generally spoken by the most powerful social group within society, and it

1768-400: A language that determine its status. Their respective frameworks differ slightly, but they emphasize four common attributes: William Stewart outlines ten functional domains in language planning: Robert Cooper outlines two additional functional domains (mass media and work) and distinguishes three sub-types of official functions: Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in

1872-437: A language. The use of writing in a speech community can have lasting sociocultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations, communication with greater numbers of people, and a standard against which varieties of spoken language are often compared. Linguist Charles A. Ferguson made two key observations about the results of adopting a writing system. First, the use of writing adds another form of

1976-499: A linguist who created multiple well-known constructed languages including the Valyrian languages and Dothraki , advocated a similar opinion, saying that "Theoretically, anyone can publish anything using any language I created, and, in my opinion, neither I nor anyone else should be able to do anything about it." However, Peterson also expressed concern that the respective rights-holders—regardless of whether or not their ownership of

2080-498: A natural language to standardize it; in this regard, even a "natural language" may be artificial in some respects, meaning some of its words have been crafted by conscious decision. Prescriptive grammars , which date to ancient times for classical languages such as Latin and Sanskrit , are rule-based codifications of natural languages, such codifications being a middle ground between naïve natural selection and development of language and its explicit construction. The term glossopoeia

2184-510: A new one. The Ainu of Japan chose to adopt the Japanese language 's katakana syllabary as the writing system for the Ainu language . Katakana is designed for a language with a basic CV syllable structure , but Ainu contains many CVC syllables which cannot easily be adapted to this syllabary. Therefore, Ainu uses a modified katakana system, in which syllable-final codas are consonants by

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2288-540: A non-constructed language later (see propaedeutic value of Esperanto). Codes for constructed languages include the ISO 639-2 " art " for conlangs; however, some constructed languages have their own ISO 639 language codes (e.g. " eo " and " epo " for Esperanto , " jbo " for Lojban , " ia " and " ina " for Interlingua , " tlh " for Klingon , " io " and " ido " for Ido , " lfn " for Lingua Franca Nova , and " tok " for Toki Pona ). One constraint on

2392-409: A particular language family) are a posteriori by definition. While most auxiliary languages are a posteriori due to their intended function as a medium of communication, many artistic languages are fully a posteriori in design—many for the purposes of alternate history . In distinguishing whether the language is a priori or a posteriori , the prevalence and distribution of respectable traits

2496-504: A posteriori auxiliary languages. Joachim Faiguet de Villeneuve in the article on Langue wrote a short proposition of a "laconic" or regularized grammar of French . During the 19th century, a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that Louis Couturat and Léopold Leau in Histoire de la langue universelle (1903) reviewed 38 projects. The first of these that made any international impact

2600-406: A pragmatic return to the aims of the a priori languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language. Thus far, these modern a priori languages have garnered only small groups of speakers. Robot Interaction Language (2010) is a spoken language that is optimized for communication between machines and humans. The major goals of ROILA are that it should be easily learnable by

2704-482: A priori language based on such a classification of concepts. Under the entry Charactère , D'Alembert critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century. After the Encyclopédie , projects for a priori languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until

2808-510: A priori when considering some linguistic factors, and at the same time a posteriori when considering other factors. An a priori language is any constructed language with some features which are not based on existing languages. Instead these features are invented or elaborated to work differently or to allude to different purposes. Some a priori languages are designed to be international auxiliary languages that remove what could be considered an unfair learning advantage for native speakers of

2912-456: A priori . An a posteriori language (from Latin a posteriori , "from the latter"), according to French linguist Louis Couturat , is any constructed language whose elements are borrowed from or based on existing languages. The term can also be extended to controlled versions of natural languages, and is most commonly used to refer to vocabulary despite other features. Likewise, zonal auxiliary languages (auxiliary languages for speakers of

3016-541: A provincial language since 1979. Today, Quechua also serves a limited international function throughout South America in Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , and Ecuador ; communities of Quechua speakers outside Peru enable communication in Quechua across borders. Still, because of Quechua's low status, Spanish is almost always used as the lingua franca instead. Recently, Quechua has also gained ground in

3120-622: A set of rules for explaining language, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language. A legend recorded in the seventh-century Irish work Auraicept na n-Éces claims that Fénius Farsaid visited Shinar after the confusion of tongues , and he and his scholars studied the various languages for ten years, taking the best features of each to create in Bérla tóbaide ("the selected language"), which he named Goídelc —the Irish language. This appears to be

3224-511: A significant number of speakers, emerged in 1951, when the International Auxiliary Language Association published its Interlingua–English Dictionary and an accompanying grammar . The success of Esperanto did not stop others from trying to construct new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones' Eurolengo , which mixes elements of English and Spanish. Loglan (1955) and its descendants constitute

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3328-410: A similar purpose for his lingua generalis of 1678, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing binary calculus . These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into "characters" or hierarchies, an idea that with

3432-449: A source language that would otherwise exist for a posteriori languages. Others, known as philosophical or taxonomic languages , try to categorize their vocabulary, either to express an underlying philosophy or to make it easier to recognize new vocabulary. Finally, many artistic languages , created for either personal use or for use in a fictional medium, employ consciously constructed grammars and vocabularies, and are best understood as

3536-449: A third spend years on developing the same language. Language planning In sociolinguistics , language planning (also known as language engineering ) is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech community . Robert L. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as "the activity of preparing a normative orthography , grammar , and dictionary for

3640-591: A three-vowel system was more faithful to the phonology of Quechua. After years of debate and disagreement, in 1985 Quechua linguists proposed the Pan-Quechua alphabet as an accurate representation of the language, and this was adopted in intercultural bilingual education programs and textbooks. However, the Peruvian Academy and the SIL both refused to adopt it and continued to propose new alphabets, leaving

3744-549: A unified alphabet reflects the process of standardization. Unlike other cases of standardization, in Quechua this has been applied only to the written language, not to the spoken language, and no attempt was made to change the spoken language of native speakers, which varied by regions. Rather, standardization was needed to produce a uniform writing system to provide education to Quechua speakers in their native language. Language planners in Peru have proposed several varieties to serve as

3848-547: Is Balaibalan , invented in the 16th century. Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by Adam and Eve in Paradise , lost in the confusion of tongues . The first Christian project for an ideal language is outlined in Dante Alighieri 's De vulgari eloquentia , where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature. Ramon Llull 's Ars Magna

3952-439: Is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken form is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form, or the written language may have been based on a divergent variety of the spoken language. In establishing a writing system for a language, corpus planners have the option of using an existing system or designing

4056-1284: Is a misuse of terms to say that we have natural language; languages exist through arbitrary institutions and the conventions of peoples. Voices, as the dialecticians say, don't signify naturally, but capriciously. " Furthermore, fictional or experimental languages can be considered naturalistic if they model real world languages. For example, if a naturalistic conlang is derived a posteriori from another language (real or constructed), it should imitate natural processes of phonological , lexical , and grammatical change. In contrast with languages such as Interlingua, naturalistic fictional languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication. Thus, naturalistic fictional languages tend to be more difficult and complex. While Interlingua has simpler grammar, syntax, and orthography than its source languages (though more complex and irregular than Esperanto or its descendants), naturalistic fictional languages typically mimic behaviors of natural languages like irregular verbs and nouns, and complicated phonological processes. In terms of purpose, most constructed languages can broadly be divided into: The boundaries between these categories are by no means clear. A constructed language could easily fall into more than one of

4160-559: Is a simplification of Latin from which the inflections have been removed. As with Interlingua, some prefer to describe its development as "planning" rather than "constructing". Some speakers of Esperanto and Esperantidos also avoid the term "artificial language" because they deny that there is anything "unnatural" about the use of their language in human communication. By contrast, some philosophers have argued that all human languages are conventional or artificial. François Rabelais 's fictional giant Pantagruel, for instance, said: " It

4264-421: Is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning. Acquisition planning is often integrated into a broader language planning process in which

Toruk – The First Flight - Misplaced Pages Continue

4368-486: Is also perceived to facilitate their political domination. It involves the establishment of language regulators , such as formal or informal agencies, committees, societies or academies to design or develop new structures to meet contemporary needs. Four overarching language ideologies are proposed to explain motivations and decisions. Eleven language planning goals have been recognized (Nahir 2003): Language planning has been divided into three types: Status planning

4472-579: Is also used to mean language construction, particularly construction of artistic languages . Conlang speakers are rare. For example, the Hungarian census of 2011 found 8,397 speakers of Esperanto , and the census of 2001 found 10 of Romanid , two each of Interlingua and Ido and one each of Idiom Neutral and Mundolinco . The Russian census of 2010 found that in Russia there were about 992 speakers of Esperanto (the 120th most common) and nine of

4576-469: Is contentious. In a 2015 lawsuit, CBS and Paramount Pictures challenged a fan film project called Axanar, stating the project infringed upon their intellectual property, which included the Klingon language , among other creative elements. During the controversy, Marc Okrand, the language's original designer expressed doubt as to whether Paramount's claims of ownership were valid. David J. Peterson ,

4680-403: Is essential. Therefore, it is important that government goals be organized and planned carefully. There is also growing concern over the treatment of multilingualism in education, especially in many countries which were once colonized. Choosing the language of instruction which would be most beneficial to effective communication on the local and state level requires thoughtful planning, and it

4784-468: Is imposed upon other groups as the form to emulate, making the standard norm necessary for socioeconomic mobility. In practice, standardization generally entails increasing the uniformity of the norm, as well as the codification of the norm. By contrast, English has become standardized without any planning. The process began when William Caxton introduced the printing press in England in 1476. This

4888-461: Is inside the puppet). The set of Toruk is made of inflated rubber and steel, making the huge set easier to transport from city to city. The Chicago Tribune praised the show's production values saying that "The designers of this piece — a group including Carl Fillion, Patrick Martel, Kym Barrett, Alain Lortie — combine with other superb artists to create the eye-popping landscape of the world of

4992-426: Is not consistently encouraged in schools. Peru's education system is instead based on Spanish, the nation's official language. Despite its low prestige, Quechua is still spoken by millions of indigenous Peruvians, a great deal of whom are bilingual in Quechua and Spanish. There is a desire to preserve the uniqueness of Quechua as a language with its own attributes and representations of culture. Some argue that promoting

5096-448: Is not the word for this show — too much greets the eye. But your soul won't ache for humanity." NZME wrote that "The play succeeds and fails in the same ways as the film did... While everything was ridiculously impressive to look at, the pacing felt off and the story simply wasn't intriguing enough to justify it." The National wrote that "It is true Toruk is not full of the heart-stopping acrobatics that defined previous shows. But

5200-522: Is often the key. Grammatical speculation dates from Classical Antiquity ; for instance, it appears in Plato 's Cratylus in Hermogenes's contention that words are not inherently linked to what they refer to; that people apply "a piece of their own voice ... to the thing". Athenaeus tells the story of two figures: Dionysius of Sicily and Alexarchus : "He [Alexarchus] once wrote something ... to

5304-610: Is often used to promote language revitalization , which can change a language's status or reverse a language shift , or to promote linguistic purism. In a case where a government revises a corpus, new dictionaries and educational materials will need to be revised in schools in order to maintain effective language acquisition. The education ministry or education sector of government is typically in charge of making national language acquisition choices based on state and local evaluation reports. The duties of education sectors vary by country; Robert B. Kaplan and Richard B. Baldauf describe

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5408-452: Is sometimes cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way one thinks. Thus, a "better" language should allow the speaker to think more clearly or intelligently or to encompass more points of view; this was the intention of Suzette Haden Elgin in creating Láadan , a feminist language embodied in her feminist science fiction series Native Tongue . Constructed languages have been included in standardized tests such as

5512-423: Is surrounded by debate. Some states prefer to teach only in the official language, but some aim to foster linguistic and thus social diversity by encouraging teaching in several (native) languages . The use of a single language of instruction supports national unity and homogeneity whereas the incorporation of different languages may help students to learn better by offering alternative perspectives. In addition to

5616-555: Is the allocation or reallocation of a language or dialect to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language. Language status is distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language function. Language status is the given position (or standing) of a language against other languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, described in 1968 by two different authors, Heinz Kloss and William Stewart . Both Kloss and Stewart stipulated four qualities of

5720-430: Is the expansion of the lexicon , which allows the language to discuss topics in modern semantic domains . Language planners generally develop new lists and glossaries to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within society. While some languages, such as Japanese and Hungarian , have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet

5824-672: The Hieroglyphica of Horapollo , and first encounters with the Chinese script directed efforts towards a perfect written language. Johannes Trithemius , in Steganographia and Polygraphia , attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17th century, interest in magical languages was continued by the Rosicrucians and alchemists (like John Dee and his Enochian ). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of

5928-547: The Enlightenment would ultimately lead to the Encyclopédie . Many of these 17th–18th centuries conlangs were pasigraphies , or purely written languages with no spoken form or a spoken form that would vary greatly according to the native language of the reader. Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an

6032-674: The Esperantido Ido . The terms "planned", "constructed", "invented", "fictional", and "artificial" are used differently in some traditions. For example, few speakers of Interlingua consider their language artificial, since they assert that it has no invented content: Interlingua's vocabulary is taken from a small set of natural languages, and its grammar is based closely on these source languages, even including some degree of irregularity; its proponents prefer to describe its vocabulary and grammar as standardized rather than artificial or constructed. Similarly, Latino sine flexione (LsF)

6136-723: The SAT , where they were used to test the applicant's ability to infer and apply grammatical rules. By the same token, a constructed language might also be used to restrict thought, as in George Orwell 's Newspeak , or to simplify thought, as in Toki Pona . However, linguists such as Steven Pinker argue that ideas exist independently of language. For example, in the book The Language Instinct , Pinker states that children spontaneously re-invent slang and even grammar with each generation. These linguists argue that attempts to control

6240-654: The supradialectal spoken norm. Some saw Qusqu-Qullaw as the natural choice for a standard since it is recognized as the form which is most similar to that spoken by the Incas. Others favor Ayacucho Quechua since it is more conservative, whereas Qusqu-Qullaw has been influenced by contact with the Aymara language . Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino proposed a literary standard, Southern Quechua that combines features of both dialects. This norm has been accepted by many institutions in Peru. Lexical modernization has also been critical to

6344-473: The 'Omatikaya,' ... all making stunning use of the still-new ability to project very high-quality graphics over any surface, however large. Not only does that include the entire floor of the United Center, but the audience as well. For some folks in your life, especially fans of Avatar or of high-graphics gaming, such design and tech wizardry will likely be more than enough." The review also said "Boring

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6448-471: The 16th century with Spanish colonization . When the Spanish first arrived in Peru, Quechua served as a language of wider communication, a lingua franca, between Spaniards and Peruvian natives. As the years passed, Spaniards asserted the superiority of the Spanish language; as a result, Spanish gained prestige, taking over as a language of wider communication and the dominant language of Peru. In 1975, under

6552-429: The 1970s through the 1990s, such as Glossopoeic Quarterly , Taboo Jadoo , and The Journal of Planned Languages . The Conlang Mailing List was founded in 1991, and later split off an AUXLANG mailing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages. In the early to mid-1990s a few conlang-related zines were published as email or websites, such as Vortpunoj and Model Languages . The Conlang mailing list has developed

6656-467: The 20th century. A Princess of Mars (1912) by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly the first fiction of that century to feature a constructed language. J. R. R. Tolkien developed families of related fictional languages and discussed artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture entitled " A Secret Vice " in 1931 at a congress. (Orwell's Newspeak is considered a satire of an international auxiliary language rather than an artistic language proper.) By

6760-529: The Rings ( Elvish ), Stargate SG-1 , Atlantis: The Lost Empire , Ar Tonelico ( Hymmnos ), Game of Thrones ( Dothraki language and Valyrian languages ), The Expanse , Avatar , Dune , and the Myst series of computer adventure games. The matter of whether or not a constructed language can be owned or protected by intellectual property laws, or if it would even be possible to enforce those laws,

6864-467: The Southeast of the present-day United States. It uses some Latin characters but also introduces new ones. The process of standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of

6968-584: The above categories. A logical language created for aesthetic reasons would also be classifiable as an artistic language; one created with philosophical motives could include being used as an auxiliary language. There are no rules, either inherent in the process of language construction or externally imposed, that would limit a constructed language to fitting only one of the above categories. A constructed language can have native speakers if young children learn it from parents who speak it fluently. According to Ethnologue , there are "200–2000 who speak Esperanto as

7072-405: The academic world, both as a school subject and a topic of literary interest. The three main types of corpus planning are all evident in the development of Quechua languages in Peru since the colonial era. Graphization has been in process since the arrival of the Spanish in the region, when the Spanish imperialists attempted to describe the exotic sounds of the language to Europeans. When Quechua

7176-466: The acquisition of Irish in schools, thus "de-Anglicizing" Ireland. Immediately after The Irish Free State gained independence in 1922, the League declared that Irish must be the language of instruction for at least one hour in primary schools in the state. Irish-speaking teachers were recruited, and preparatory colleges were established to train new teachers. The program implementation was mostly left to

7280-516: The beginning of the first decade of the 21st century, it had become common for science fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, or more commonly, an extremely limited but defined vocabulary which suggests the existence of a complete language, or whatever portions of the language are needed for the story. Constructed languages are a regular part of the genre, appearing in Star Wars , Star Trek , The Lord of

7384-429: The book's author, and preferably also fit with any personal names of fictional speakers of the language. An a priori (from Latin a priori , "from the former") constructed language is one whose features (including vocabulary, grammar, etc.) are not based on an existing language, and an a posteriori language is the opposite. This categorization, however, is not absolute, as many constructed languages may be called

7488-682: The demands of modernization, other languages, such as Hindi and Arabic , have failed to do so. Such expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of linguistic purism often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process of word formation or from extensive borrowing from another language. While Hungarian has almost exclusively used language-internal processes to coin new words, Japanese has borrowed extensively from English to derive new words as part of its modernization. Acquisition planning

7592-417: The development of Quechua. Language planners have attempted to coin new Quechua words by combining Quechua morphemes to give new meanings. Generally, loanwords are considered only when the words cannot be developed through existing Quechua structures. If loanwords are adopted, linguists may adjust them to match typical Quechua phonology. Since Quechua is no longer an official language of Peru, Quechua literacy

7696-548: The direhorse, the austrapede, the turtapede, and a viperwolf. The Pandoran animals are brought to life through large-scale puppetry. Toruk itself is a 'reverse string puppet' (handled from the base) while the Austrapede, Turtapede and Direhorse are 'lived-in puppets' (someone is inside) and the Viperwolf is an 'in-view puppet' (the lower half of the puppeteer is outside, becoming a part of the puppet, while his/her upper body

7800-460: The dissemination of this dialect as the cultural norm for the English language. Modernization occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet functions. Modernization often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a country gains independence from a colonial power or when there is a change in the language education policy . The main force in modernization

7904-423: The early 20th century (e.g. Ro ), but most recent engineered languages have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. Lincos and programming languages ), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., Loglan and Lojban ) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., Ithkuil ). Already in the Encyclopédie attention began to focus on

8008-663: The education sector, there are non-governmental sectors or organizations that have a significant effect on language acquisition, such as the Académie française of France or the Real Academia Española of Spain. These organizations often write their own dictionaries and grammar books, thus affecting the materials which students are exposed to in schools. Although these organizations do not hold official power, they influence government planning decisions, such as with educational materials, affecting acquisition. Before

8112-415: The expansive world of Avatar is re-explored in the flesh." Toruk features 5 speciality acrobatic acts and general tumbling skills in order to capture the other worldly skills of the inhabitants of Pandora. Each tribe has their own unique apparatus and discipline, reflecting their tribal values and skills which Entu and Ralu will need to learn in order to tame Toruk. The following lists the acts, correct as of

8216-679: The first Asia Pacific Tour. Several acts were added following the premiere of Toruk, and hence are not included in the official DVD recording. Those featured at the premiere (and on the DVD are in italics ): The following tracks are included in the show but are not on the CD: Constructed language A constructed language (shortened to conlang ) is a language whose phonology , grammar , orthography , and vocabulary , instead of having developed naturally , are consciously devised for some purpose, which may include being devised for

8320-462: The first mention of the concept of a constructed language in literature. The earliest non-natural languages were considered less "constructed" than "super-natural", mystical, or divinely inspired. The Lingua Ignota , recorded in the 12th century by St. Hildegard of Bingen , is an example, and apparently the first entirely artificial language. It is a form of private mystical cant (see also Enochian ). An important example from Middle-Eastern culture

8424-656: The forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language. Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the adequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions. Unlike status planning, which is mostly undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning is generally the work of individuals with greater linguistic expertise. There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning: graphization, standardization, and modernization. Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and orthographic conventions for

8528-489: The guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community" (p. 8 ). Along with language ideology and language practices, language planning is part of language policy  – a typology drawn from Bernard Spolsky's theory of language policy. According to Spolsky, language management is a more precise term than language planning. Language management is defined as "the explicit and observable effort by someone or some group that has or claims authority over

8632-860: The human user, and optimized for efficient recognition by computer speech recognition algorithms. Artists may use language as a source of creativity in art, poetry, or calligraphy, or as a metaphor to address themes as cultural diversity and the vulnerability of the individual in a globalized world. Some people prefer however to take pleasure in constructing, crafting a language by a conscious decision for reasons of literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness. Such artistic languages begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel , and in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects beginning in

8736-472: The individual schools, which did not consistently carry it out. Additionally, educating a generation is a long process, for which the League was not prepared. There was no consensus as to how the Irish language should be reinstituted; the League and schools did not develop a system assessment plan to monitor progress. Thus the movement lost strength, and the number of native Irish speakers has been in steady decline. Peru 's history of language planning begins in

8840-476: The issue unsettled. For more information, see Quechua writing system and Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift . Another disagreement was about how to reflect the phonological differences apparent in different dialects of Quechua. For example, some distinct dialects utilize aspirated and glottalized versions of the voiceless uvular stop /q/ , while others do not and some language planners found it important to reflect these dialectal differences. The search for

8944-409: The language to the community's repertory. Although written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary , grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken form. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech

9048-508: The leadership of President Juan Velasco Alvarado , the revolutionary government of Peru declared Quechua an official language of the Peruvian state, "coequal with Spanish." Four years later, the law was reversed. Peru's 1979 constitution declares Spanish the only official language of the state; Quechua and Aymara are relegated to "official use zones," equivalent to Stewart's provincial function described above. Quechua has officially remained

9152-410: The legal consensus on ownership of languages remains uncertain. The Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre claims ownership of Palawa kani , an attempted composite reconstruction of up to a dozen extinct Tasmanian indigenous languages, and has asked Misplaced Pages to remove its page on the project. However, there is no current legal backing for the claim. Various papers on constructed languages were published from

9256-717: The number of women participating has increased over time. More recently founded online communities include the Zompist Bulletin Board (ZBB; since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board. Discussion on these forums includes presentation of members' conlangs and feedback from other members, discussion of natural languages, whether particular conlang features have natural language precedents, and how interesting features of natural languages can be repurposed for conlangs, posting of interesting short texts as translation challenges, and meta-discussion about

9360-416: The participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs" (p. 4) Language planning is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations such as grass-roots organizations as well as individuals. Goals of such planning vary. Better communication through assimilation of a single dominant language can bring economic benefits to minorities but

9464-466: The partition of Ireland , a movement began which aimed at the restoration of Irish , as the nation's primary language, based on a widespread sentiment for Irish nationalism and cultural identity. During and after colonisation, Irish had competed with English and Scots ; the movement to restore the language gained momentum after the Irish War of Independence . The Gaelic League was founded to promote

9568-450: The philosophy of conlanging, conlangers' purposes, and whether conlanging is an art or a hobby. Another 2001 survey by Patrick Jarrett showed an average age of 30.65, with the average time since starting to invent languages 11.83 years. A more recent thread on the ZBB showed that many conlangers spend a relatively small amount of time on any one conlang, moving from one project to another; about

9672-538: The public authorities in Casandreia ... As for what this letter says, in my opinion not even the Pythian god could make sense of it." While the mechanisms of grammar suggested by classical philosophers were designed to explain existing languages ( Latin , Greek , and Sanskrit ), they were not used to construct new grammars. Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, Pāṇini constructed

9776-463: The range of human thought through the reform of language would fail, as concepts like "freedom" will reappear in new words if the old words vanish. Proponents claim a particular language makes it easier to express and understand concepts in one area, and more difficult in others. An example can be taken from the way various programming languages make it easier to write certain kinds of programs and harder to write others. Another reason cited for using

9880-488: The rights is legitimate—would be likely to sue individuals who publish material in said languages, especially if the author might profit from said material. Furthermore, comprehensive learning material for such constructed languages as High Valyrian and Klingon has been published and made freely accessible on the language-learning platform Duolingo —but those courses are licensed by the respective copyright holders. Because only a few such disputes have occurred thus far,

9984-605: The sectors' six principal goals: Although acquisition planning can be useful to governments, there are problems which must be considered. Even with a solid evaluation and assessment system, the effects of planning methods can never be certain; governments must consider the effects on other aspects of state planning, such as economic and political planning. Some proposed acquisition changes could also be too drastic or instituted too suddenly without proper planning and organization. Acquisition planning can also be financially draining, so adequate planning and awareness of financial resources

10088-422: The statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the changes are finally introduced to society on a national, state or local level through education systems, ranging from primary schools to universities. This process of change can entail an alteration in student textbook formatting, a change in methods of teaching an official language, or the development of a bilingual language program, only to name

10192-513: The thrill is replaced with heart; the environmentalist message coursing through the show is delivered by the soulful performances of the dancers whose facial expressions run the gamut from hope and joy to fear and ultimately resilience." BroadwayWorld wrote "Overall I would recommend this show to people who would appreciate a story-telling art piece that's visually very appealing. But to the Cirque du Soleil-admirers who prefer some more action like

10296-652: The translation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls "Israeli". Esperanto as a living spoken language has evolved significantly from the prescriptive blueprint published in 1887, so that modern editions of the Fundamenta Krestomatio , a 1903 collection of early texts in the language, require many footnotes on the syntactic and lexical differences between early and modern Esperanto. Proponents of constructed languages often have many reasons for using them. The famous but disputed Sapir–Whorf hypothesis

10400-572: The vowel system. Representatives from the Peruvian Academy of the Quechua language and the Summer Institute of Linguistics wanted to represent allophones of the vowels /i/ and /u/ with separate letters <e> and <o>, which creates an apparent five-vowel system. They argued that this makes the language easier to learn for people who are already familiar with written Spanish. However, other Quechua linguists argued that

10504-464: Was Volapük , proposed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer ; within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe. However, disagreements between Schleyer and some prominent users of the language led to schism, and by the mid-1890s it fell into obscurity, making way for Esperanto , proposed in 1887 by L. L. Zamenhof , and its descendants . Interlingua , the most recent auxlang to gain

10608-578: Was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basically an application of combinatorics on a given set of concepts. During the Renaissance , Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were drawn upon in a magical context, resulting in cryptographic applications. Renaissance interest in Ancient Egypt , notably the discovery of

10712-488: Was followed by the adoption of the south-east Midlands dialect, spoken in London , as the print language. Because of the dialect's use for administrative, government, business, and literary purposes, it became entrenched as the prestigious variety of English. After the development of grammars and dictionaries in the 18th century, the rise of print capitalism , industrialization , urbanization , and mass education led to

10816-482: Was made an official language in Peru in 1975, the introduction of the language into the education and government domains made it essential to have a standard written language. The task of adopting a writing system proved to be a point of contention among Quechua linguists. Although most agreed to use the Latin alphabet , linguists disagreed about how to represent the phonological system of Quechua, particularly in regards to

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