Tatiana (or Tatianna , also romanized as Tatyana , Tatjana , Tatijana , etc.) is a female name of Sabine-Roman origin that became widespread in Eastern Europe.
103-720: Tatiana is a feminine , diminutive derivative of the Sabine —and later Latin —name Tatius. King Titus Tatius was the name of a legendary ruler of the Sabines , an Italic tribe living near Rome around the 8th century BC. After the Romans absorbed the Sabines, the name Tatius remained in use in the Roman world, into the first centuries of Christianity, as well as the masculine diminutive Tatianus and its feminine counterpart, Tatiana. While
206-566: A pit boss at a Las Vegas casino. In 1981 Goffman married sociolinguist Gillian Sankoff . The following year, their daughter Alice was born. In 1982 Goffman died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania , on 19 November, of stomach cancer . His daughter is also a sociologist. The research Goffman did on Unst inspired him to write his first major work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956). After graduating from
309-431: A "Goffman school"; thus his impact on social theory has been simultaneously "great and modest". Fine and Manning attribute the lack of subsequent Goffman-style research and writing to the nature of his style, which they consider very difficult to duplicate (even "mimic-proof"), and also to his subjects' not being widely valued in the social sciences. Of his style, Fine and Manning remark that he tends to be seen either as
412-536: A BA in sociology and anthropology . Later he moved to the University of Chicago , where he received an MA (1949) and PhD (1953) in sociology. For his doctoral dissertation, from December 1949 to May 1951 he lived and collected ethnographic data on the island of Unst in the Shetland Islands . Goffman's dissertation, entitled Communication Conduct in an Island Community (1953), was completed under
515-647: A black-tie affair, the definition of the situation is that they must mind their manners and act according to their class. In 2007 by The Times Higher Education Guide listed Goffman as the sixth most-cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Michel Foucault , Pierre Bourdieu , and Anthony Giddens , and ahead of Jürgen Habermas . His popularity with the general public has been attributed to his writing style, described as "sardonic, satiric, jokey", and as "ironic and self-consciously literary", and to its being more accessible than that of most academics. His style has also been influential in academia, and
618-611: A cofounder of the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization and coauthored its Platform Statement. In 1971 he published Relations in Public , in which he tied together many of his ideas about everyday life, seen from a sociological perspective . Another major book of his, Frame Analysis , came out in 1974. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1977–78. In 1979, Goffman received
721-465: A display of frailty, fear and incompetence". Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders. Alongside
824-656: A faculty member in the sociology department at the University of California, Berkeley , first as a visiting professor, then from 1962 as a full professor. In 1968 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania , receiving the Benjamin Franklin Chair in Sociology and Anthropology, due largely to the efforts of Dell Hymes , a former colleague at Berkeley. In 1969 he became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1970 Goffman became
927-523: A few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty. The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi , for instance, practice this form of body modification. Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women and femininity. In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to
1030-692: A masculine culture and have a higher salary. Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders. However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control. Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion. Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as
1133-566: A model of communication strategies in face-to-face interaction , and focused on how everyday rituals affect public projections of self. Goffman's The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life was published in 1956, with a revised edition in 1959. He had developed the book's core ideas from his doctoral dissertation. It was Goffman's first and most famous book, for which he received the American Sociological Association 's 1961 MacIver Award. Goffman describes
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#17327905172901236-435: A more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife , teacher , accountant , data entry clerk , cashier , salesperson, receptionist , housekeeper , cook , maid , social worker , and nurse . Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality and the gender pay gap . Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine , are dominated by
1339-536: A particular situation. This decision how to act is based on the concept of definition of the situation. Definitions are all predetermined and people choose how they will act by choosing the proper behavior for the situation they are in. Goffman also draws from William Thomas for this concept. Thomas believed that people are born into a particular social class and that the definitions of the situations they will encounter have already been defined for them. For instance. when an individual from an upper-class background goes to
1442-490: A person projects him- or herself in society risks embarrassment and discredit. So people remain guarded to ensure that they do not show themselves to others in an unfavorable light. Goffman's book Strategic Interaction (1969) is his contribution to game theory . It discusses the compatibility of game theory with the legacy of the Chicago School of sociology and with the perspective of symbolic interactionism . It
1545-578: A person with a criminal record may simply withhold that information for fear of judgment by whoever that person happens to encounter. Goffman's Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior is a collection of six essays. The first four were originally published in the 1950s, the fifth in 1964, and the last was written for the collection. They include "On Face-work" (1955); "The Nature of Deference and Demeanor" (1956); "Embarrassment and Social Organization" (1956); "Alienation from Interaction" (1957); "Mental Symptoms and Public Order" (1964); and "Where
1648-460: A person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age. Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous , and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon
1751-505: A platform for understanding and interpreting the interaction between individuals engaging speech communication. In the chapter "The Frame Analyses of Talk," the focus is put on how words are exchanged and what is being said, specifically in informal talk or conversation. The concept of framing is introduced through an exploration of why misunderstandings occur in these basic, everyday conversations. He argues that they are more errors in verbal framing than anything else. The types of frames Goffman
1854-483: A play this generally takes the form of applause. Other similarities include engaging in the suspense the speaker is attempting to create. In both scenarios, you must put aside the knowledge that the performers know the outcome of the event being relayed and, in a sense, play along. This is integral to his stance as he explains "the argument that much of talk consists of replayings and that these make no sense unless some form of storyteller's suspense can be maintained shows
1957-427: A relatively serious way: "Kidding aside," "Now, I'm really serious about this," and other such tags become necessary as a means of momentarily down keying the flow of words." Folklorist Richard Bauman builds heavily on Goffman's work, specifically on the idea of key, in his work pertaining to an analysis of the performance frame. Bauman details that a performance is dependent on it being properly keyed, without this,
2060-569: A replaying of a strip – what he describes as a personal experience or event. When we talk with others, the speaker's goal is often always the same, to provide "evidence for the fairness or unfairness of his current situation and other grounds for sympathy, approval, exoneration, understanding, or amusement. And what his listeners are primarily obliged to do is to show some kind of audience appreciation." Essentially, through interaction, we are only looking to be heard, not inspire any kind of action but simply to know that someone listened and understood. This
2163-401: A scene that would originally be meaningless and makes it meaningful. One type of primary framework is a natural framework, which identifies situations in the natural world and is completely biophysical , with no human influences. The other type of framework is a social framework, which explains events and connects them to humans. An example of a natural framework is the weather, and an example of
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#17327905172902266-465: A scholar whose style is difficult to reproduce, and therefore daunting to those who might wish to emulate it, or as a scholar whose work was transitional, bridging the work of the Chicago school and that of contemporary sociologists, and thus of less interest to sociologists than the classics of either of those groups. Of his subjects, Fine and Manning observe that the topic of behavior in public places
2369-671: A smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive. Although the Abrahamic God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king —many theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , God "is neither man nor woman: he is God". Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague , have explored
2472-400: A social framework is a meteorologist who predicts the weather . Focusing on the social frameworks, Goffman seeks to "construct a general statement regarding the structure, or form, of experiences individuals have at any moment of their social life". Goffman saw this book as his magnum opus , but it was not as popular as his earlier works. In Frame Analysis , Erving Goffman provides
2575-442: A theory that bridges the agency-and-structure divide—for popularizing social constructionism , symbolic interaction , conversation analysis , ethnographic studies, and the study and importance of individual interactions. His influence extended far beyond sociology: for example, his work provided the assumptions of much current research in language and social interaction within the discipline of communication. Goffman introduced
2678-482: A variety of social and cultural factors. Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are. Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings. Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at
2781-401: A world which is sometimes hostile to them. Erving Goffman Erving Goffman (11 June 1922 – 19 November 1982) was a Canadian-born American sociologist , social psychologist , and writer, considered by some "the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century". In 2007, The Times Higher Education Guide listed him as the sixth most-cited author of books in
2884-678: Is patron saint of students in general and in Russia, students are celebrated on Tatiana Day , 25 January. St. Tatiana is also the patron saint of Moscow State University . Tatiana Larina is the heroine of Alexander Pushkin 's verse novel Eugene Onegin . The poem was and continues to be extremely popular in Russia. The character of Tatiana Larina inspired the names of two Romanovs: Princess Tatiana Constantinovna of Russia and her distant cousin Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia . Feminine This
2987-490: Is a man who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for entertainment purposes. Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for
3090-430: Is also a backstage—a hidden, private area where people can be themselves and drop their societal roles and identities . Goffman is sometimes credited with having coined the term "total institution", though Fine and Manning note that he had heard it in lectures by Everett Hughes in reference to any institution in which people are treated alike and in which behavior is regulated. Regardless of whether Goffman coined
3193-401: Is an accepted version of this page Femininity (also called womanliness ) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls . Femininity can be understood as socially constructed , and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity
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3296-466: Is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender . Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness , empathy , humility , and sensitivity , though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by
3399-402: Is considering are discussed in previous sections of the book, "fabrications, keyings, frame breaks, misframing, and, of course, frame disputes." That a frame can assume so many forms is the basis of his analyses, "these framings are subject to a multitude of different transformations − the warrant for a frame analysis in the first place." Goffman's key idea is that most conversation is simply
3502-934: Is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours. Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women's attempts to negotiate through
3605-674: Is credited with popularizing a less formal style in academic publications. Interestingly, if he is rightly so credited, he may by this means have contributed to a remodelling of the norms of academic behaviour, particularly of communicative action, arguably liberating intellectuals from social restraints unnatural to some of them. His students included Carol Brooks Gardner, Charles Goodwin , Marjorie Harness Goodwin , John Lofland , Gary T. Marx , Harvey Sacks , Emanuel Schegloff , David Sudnow and Eviatar Zerubavel . Despite his influence, according to Fine and Manning there are "remarkably few scholars who are continuing his work", nor has there been
3708-399: Is critical, just as is an awareness of the audience. Depending on who you're speaking with (a teacher, a child, a loved one, a friend, a pet, etc.) you will curve your speech to fit the frame of what your intended audience is expecting. Goffman uses the metaphor of conversation being a stage play. A play's tone will shift throughout the performance due to the actions taken by the actors; this
3811-915: Is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach , wisdom is personified and called she . According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately identified with God. The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew : Chokmah , in Arabic : Hikmah , in Greek : Sophia , and in Latin : Sapientia . In Hebrew , both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine. In Christian Kabbalah , Chokmah (wisdom and intuition)
3914-487: Is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']" and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's life trying to escape." As communist countries such as Romania and
4017-459: Is not homogeneous; we must act differently in different settings. This recognition led Goffman to his dramaturgical analysis. He saw a connection between the kinds of "acts" that people put on in their daily lives and theatrical performances. In a social interaction, as in a theatrical performance, there is an onstage area where actors (people) appear before the audience; this is where positive self-concepts and desired impressions are offered. But there
4120-547: Is not necessarily related to a man's sexual orientation. Because men are pressured to be masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality. Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called cross-dressers. A drag queen
4223-503: Is often associated with the symbolic interaction school of sociological thought, he did not see himself as a representative of it, and so Fine and Manning conclude that he "does not easily fit within a specific school of sociological thought". His ideas are also "difficult to reduce to a number of key themes"; his work can be broadly described as developing "a comparative, qualitative sociology that aimed to produce generalizations about human behavior". Goffman made substantial advances in
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4326-482: Is often stigmatized as trivial and unworthy of serious scholarly attention. Nonetheless, Fine and Manning note that Goffman is "the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century". Elliott and Turner see him as "a revered figure—an outlaw theorist who came to exemplify the best of the sociological imagination", and "perhaps the first postmodern sociological theorist". Goffman's early works consist of his graduate writings of 1949–53. His master's thesis
4429-445: Is one of his few works that clearly engage with that perspective. Goffman's view on game theory was shaped by the works of Thomas Schelling . Goffman presents reality as a form of game, and discusses its rules and the various moves that players can make (the "unwitting", the "naive", the "covering", the "uncovering", and the "counter-uncovering") while trying to get or hide an information. Goffman credited Gregory Bateson for creating
4532-897: Is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys. Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification . Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine. Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution , genetics , epigenetics , and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed
4635-535: Is represented in the advertising to which all individuals are commonly exposed. In her 2001 work Measuring Up: How Advertising Affects Self-Image , Vickie Rutledge Shields stated that the work was "unique at the time for employing a method now being labeled 'semiotic content analysis'" and that it "[provided] the base for textual analyses ... such as poststructuralist and psychoanalytic approaches". She also noted that feminist scholars like Jean Kilbourne "[built] their highly persuasive and widely circulated findings on
4738-439: Is similar to how a discussion is keyed – based on what either person says or does over the course of an interaction, the key will change accordingly. The parallels go further, though. Goffman also claims that a speaker details a drama more often than they provide information. They invite the listener to empathize and, as was explained above, they are often not meant to be stirred to take action, but rather to show appreciation; during
4841-473: Is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose. One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women. For centuries in Imperial China , smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful. In
4944-457: Is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to
5047-956: Is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system . In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures , Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions . Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life , and
5150-498: Is why often a simple head nod or grunt is accepted as an appropriate response in conversation. Goffman explains that the way a conversation is keyed is critical to understanding the intent behind many utterances in everyday speech. Key is probably best understood as the tone of the dialogue which can change numerous times during an interaction. Signaling a change in key is one way that framing often takes place, "special brackets will have to be introduced should he want to say something in
5253-635: The Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East Germany , Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary , they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as signs of socialist modernity. In China, with
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#17327905172905356-509: The creation of the Universe . Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong, with good female communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment. Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions. In revolutionary China in
5459-517: The humanities and social sciences . Goffman was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association . His best-known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction . This took the form of dramaturgical analysis , beginning with his 1956 book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . Goffman's other major works include Asylums (1961), Stigma (1963), Interaction Ritual (1967), Frame Analysis (1974), and Forms of Talk (1981). His major areas of study included
5562-463: The sociology of everyday life , social interaction , the social construction of self, social organization ( framing ) of experience, and particular elements of social life such as total institutions and stigmas . Goffman was born 11 June 1922, in Mannville, Alberta , Canada, to Max Goffman and Anne Goffman, née Averbach. He was from a family of Ukrainian Jews who had emigrated to Canada at
5665-534: The theatrical performances that occur in face-to-face interactions. He holds that when someone comes in contact with another person, he attempts to control or guide the impression the other person will form of him, by altering his own setting, appearance and manner. At the same time, the second person attempts to form an impression of, and obtain information about, the first person. Goffman also believes that participants in social interactions engage in certain practices to avoid embarrassing themselves or others. Society
5768-731: The women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model, developing an interest in androgyny . The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities. Second-wave feminists , influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between females and males were innate,
5871-476: The 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish " and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching
5974-504: The Action Is". The first essay, "On Face-work", discusses the concept of face , which is the positive self-image a person holds when interacting with others. Goffman believes that face "as a sociological construct of interaction is neither inherent in nor a permanent aspect of the person". Once someone offers a positive self-image of him- or herself to others, they feel a need to maintain and live up to that image. Inconsistency in how
6077-726: The Cooley-Mead Award for Distinguished Scholarship, from the Section on Social Psychology of the American Sociological Association. He was elected the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association , serving in 1981–82, but was unable to deliver the presidential address in person due to progressing illness. Posthumously, in 1983, Goffman received the Mead Award from the Society for
6180-490: The Management of Spoiled Identity (1963) examines how, to protect their identities when they depart from approved standards of behavior or appearance, people manage impressions of themselves, mainly through concealment. Stigma pertains to the shame a person may feel when he or she fails to meet other people's standards, and to the fear of being discredited—which causes the person not to reveal his or her shortcomings. Thus
6283-605: The Mental Patient" (1959); "The Underlife of a Public Institution: A Study of Ways of Making Out in a Mental Hospital"; and "The Medical Model and Mental Hospitalization: Some Notes on the Vicissitudes of the Tinkering Trades". The first three focus on the experiences of patients; the last, on professional-client interactions. Goffman is mainly concerned with the details of psychiatric hospitalization and
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#17327905172906386-867: The Study of Symbolic Interaction. Goffman was influenced by Herbert Blumer , Émile Durkheim , Sigmund Freud , Everett Hughes , Alfred Radcliffe-Brown , Talcott Parsons , Alfred Schütz , Georg Simmel and W. Lloyd Warner . Hughes was the "most influential of his teachers" according to Tom Burns . Gary Alan Fine and Philip Manning have said that Goffman never engaged in serious dialogue with other theorists, but his work has influenced and been discussed by numerous contemporary sociologists, including Anthony Giddens , Jürgen Habermas and Pierre Bourdieu . Though Goffman
6489-650: The University of Chicago, in 1954–57 he was an assistant to the athletic director at the National Institute for Mental Health in Bethesda, Maryland . Participant observation done there led to his essays on mental illness and total institutions which came to form his second book, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (1961). In 1958 Goffman became
6592-534: The ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division. The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain
6695-495: The actions of individuals, groups and societies. Frame analysis , then, is the study of the organization of social experience. To illustrate the concept of the frame, Goffman gives the example of a picture frame : a person uses the frame (which represents structure) to hold together his picture (which represents the content) of what he is experiencing in his life. The most basic frames are called primary frameworks. A primary framework takes an individual's experience or an aspect of
6798-406: The close relevance of frame-indeed, the close relevance of dramaturgy-for the organization of talk." Lastly, because the replaying of strips is not extemporaneous, but rather preformulated, it is yet another parallel between a stage production and conversation. All of these things work in concert to provide a foundation of how talk is framed. In Gender Advertisements , Goffman analyzes how gender
6901-417: The concept of nonperson treatment as a level of social interaction. Goffman defined "impression management" as a person's attempts to present an acceptable image to those around them, verbally or nonverbally. This definition is based on Goffman's idea that people see themselves as others view them, so they attempt to see themselves as if they are outside looking in. Goffman was also dedicated to discovering
7004-438: The concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men. Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors. In her significant 1963 book The Feminine Mystique , American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that
7107-651: The display will not be successful. His work on performance analyses is deeply indebted to what Goffman establishes here in "Frame Analyses." Context is one other element to framing that is essential. "The participants will be bound by norms of good manners: through frequency and length of turns at talk, through topics avoided, through circumspection in regard to references about self, through attention offered eagerly or begrudgingly-through all these means, rank and social relationship will be given their due." Certain things can and will be said in one scenario that would never be uttered in another. An awareness of these social framings
7210-537: The earliest known shamans were female, and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women. In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As
7313-466: The economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to rise. In many cultures, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak. Effeminate men are often associated with homosexuality , although femininity
7416-508: The empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions. Archeological finds have suggested that
7519-458: The female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti , the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism , the universal creative force Yoni is feminine , with inspiration being the life force of creation. In Taoism , the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang . The yin is also present, to
7622-641: The figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman". The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman and in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler , who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as feminine or masculine. Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to project "shyness, reserve and
7725-491: The film industry for the National Film Board of Canada , established by John Grierson . Later he developed an interest in sociology. Also during this time, he met the renowned North American sociologist Dennis Wrong . Their meeting motivated Goffman to leave the University of Manitoba and enroll at the University of Toronto , where he studied under C. W. M. Hart and Ray Birdwhistell , graduating in 1945 with
7828-1247: The glint of legs sheathed in nylon." In communist Poland , changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism ." Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue, requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature. Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed , Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us – we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There
7931-459: The idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah , God is compared to a mother comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy , God is said to have given birth to Israel. The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo . In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition , wisdom
8034-502: The idea of framing and psychological frames. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (1974) is Goffman's attempt to explain how conceptual frames – ways to organize experience – structure an individual's perception of society. This book is thus about the organization of experience rather than the organization of society. A frame is a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives that organize experiences and guide
8137-404: The individualized choices made by women. Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences. Others, such as Carole Pateman , Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff , argue that the definition of femininity
8240-701: The key to women's subjugation lay in the social construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent, and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity." Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness, supportiveness, gentleness, warmth, passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness, modesty, humility, empathy, affection, tenderness, and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding have been cited as stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies. The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity
8343-446: The male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus. In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair. In other cultures, however, some expectations are different. For example, in many parts of
8446-694: The modern feminine ideal of thinness. In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality. Some, however, see it as a symbol of objectification and oppression. Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine. In Ancient Egypt , sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes , cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia , clothing
8549-707: The name later disappeared from Western Europe including Italy, it remained prevalent in the Hellenic world of the Eastern Roman Empire, and later spread to the Byzantine-influenced Orthodox world, including Russia . In that context, it originally honoured the church Saint Tatiana , who was tortured and martyred in the persecutions of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus , c. 230 CE. St. Tatiana
8652-498: The nature and effects of the process he calls "institutionalization". He describes how institutionalization socializes people into the role of a good patient, someone "dull, harmless and inconspicuous"—a condition that in turn reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness. Total institutions greatly affect people's interactions; yet even in such places, people find ways to redefine their roles and reclaim their identities. Asylums has been credited with helping catalyze
8755-403: The nature of gender in advertising on Goffman's original categories". Goffman's book, Forms of Talk (1981), includes five essays: "Replies and Responses" (1976); "Response Cries" (1978); "Footing" (1979); "The Lecture" (1976); and "Radio Talk" (1981). Each essay addresses both verbal and non-verbal communication through a sociolinguistic model. The book provides a comprehensive overview of
8858-563: The prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction". This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial. In 2005, scientific research investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and
8961-595: The reform of mental health systems in a number of countries, leading to reductions in the numbers of large mental hospitals and of the people locked up in them. It was also influential in the anti-psychiatry movement. In Behavior in Public Places (1963), Goffman again focuses on everyday public interactions. He draws distinctions between several types of public gatherings ("gatherings", "situations", "social occasions") and types of audiences (acquainted versus unacquainted). Goffman's book Stigma: Notes on
9064-400: The resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. In Carl Jung 's school of analytical psychology , the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious , a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of
9167-458: The sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving . Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women. Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports
9270-495: The study of face-to-face interaction , elaborated the " dramaturgical approach " to human interaction , and developed numerous concepts that have had a massive influence, particularly in the field of the micro-sociology of everyday life. Much of his work was about the organization of everyday behavior, a concept he termed "interaction order". He contributed to the sociological concept of framing ( frame analysis ), to game theory (the concept of strategic interaction), and to
9373-611: The study of talk . In the introduction, Goffman identifies three themes that recur throughout the text: " ritualization , participation framework, and embedding". The first essay, "Replies and Responses", concerns " conversational dialogue" and the way people respond during a conversation, both verbally and non-verbally. The second essay, "Response Cries", considers the use of utterances and their social implications in different social contexts. Specifically, Goffman discusses " self-talk " (talking to no one in particular) and its role in social situations. Next, in "Footing", Goffman addresses
9476-468: The study of interactions and linguistics . With regard to the latter, he argued that the activity of speaking must be seen as a social rather than a linguistic construct. From a methodological perspective, Goffman often employed qualitative approaches, specifically ethnography , most famously in his study of social aspects of mental illness , in particular the functioning of total institutions. Overall, his contributions are valued as an attempt to create
9579-630: The subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics. Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists , argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes. Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men
9682-425: The subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less prone to violence. Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have
9785-432: The subtle ways humans present acceptable images by concealing information that may conflict with the images for a particular situation, such as concealing tattoos when applying for a job in which tattoos would be inappropriate, or hiding a bizarre obsession such as collecting/interacting with dolls, which society may see as abnormal. Goffman broke from George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer in that while he did not reject
9888-445: The supervision of W. Lloyd Warner , Donald Horton, and Anselm Strauss . In 1952 Goffman married Angelica Schuyler Choate (nicknamed Sky); in 1953, their son Thomas was born. Angelica experienced mental illness and died by suicide in 1964. Outside his academic career, Goffman was known for his interest, and relative success, in the stock market and gambling. At one point, in pursuit of his hobbies and ethnographic studies, he became
9991-521: The term, he popularized it with his 1961 book Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . The book has been described as "ethnography of the concept of the total institution". It was one of the first sociological examinations of the social situation of mental patients in psychiatric hospitals and a major contribution to understanding of social aspects of mental illness . The book comprises four essays: "Characteristics of Total Institutions" (1957); "The Moral Career of
10094-802: The time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden , wife , or widow . After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380. In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate determines
10197-499: The turn of the century. He had an older sister, Frances Bay , who became an actress. The family moved to Dauphin, Manitoba , where his father operated a successful tailoring business. From 1937 Goffman attended St. John's Technical High School in Winnipeg , where his family had moved that year. In 1939 he enrolled at the University of Manitoba , majoring in chemistry. He interrupted his studies and moved to Ottawa to work in
10300-472: The way people perceive themselves, he was more interested in the actual physical proximity or the "interaction order" that molds the self. In other words, Goffman believed that impression management can be achieved only if the audience is in sync with a person's self-perception. If the audience disagrees with the image someone is presenting then their self-presentation is interrupted. People present images of themselves based on how society thinks they should act in
10403-425: The world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine. Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and blue with girls. These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist. In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on
10506-462: Was a survey of audience responses to a radio soap opera, Big Sister . One of its most important elements was a critique of his research methodology—of experimental logic and of variable analysis . Other writings from the period include Symbols of Class Status (1951) and On Cooling the Mark Out (1952). His doctoral dissertation, Communication Conduct in an Island Community (1953), presented
10609-594: Was generally unisex , though women wore veils and headscarves . Women in Ancient Greece wore himations ; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla , a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion. The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo. Body alteration
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