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104-404: The agreement established minimum prices for the purchase of surplus coffee production by governments, that the export of inferior types of coffee was to be discouraged, the improvement of the advertising of Brazilian coffee abroad, the stimulation of domestic consumption and the restrictment of the expansion of coffee crops. Purchases would be financed by issues backed by external loans. In addition,

208-428: A broad reforms program and were determined to carry it out. It included turning the country into a federal monarchy and the adoption of a civil code , as the country lacked one. As was usual, the new prime minister dissolved the chamber of deputies and called for new elections. In order to draft the country's first civil code, the government created a commission and Pena was appointed one of its members. Pena wrote

312-465: A child, he was taken care of by the nursemaid Ambrosina, a slave. Pena would often accompany his father to the gold mines in Brumado and São Gonçalo do Rio Abaixo . According to José Anchieta da Silva, Pena was an early abolitionist who fought for better working conditions for his father's slaves; on one occasion, upon seeing a pregnant slave working in a mine, Pena spoke to the overseer, after which it

416-432: A coup d'état. Pena's stance on slavery became ambiguous. It is not known for certain whether he owned slaves. His political prominence made him abandon his youthful abolitionist ideals, as he became increasingly concerned with the economic impacts of abolition and sought to be loyal to his party. Pena went along with his party in parliamentary debates regarding slavery; Minas Gerais' politicians feared abolition could harm

520-480: A federal intervention would be inevitable, Alvim stepped forward and resigned in February 1892. Pena then emerged as the only one capable of restoring stability to the state, being chosen by consensus of its different political currents to succeed Alvim. Pena ran for president of Minas Gerais, on a single ticket, and became the first democratically elected president of the state by direct vote on 30 June 1892, with

624-654: A fervent monarchist, praised Afonso Pena for not having allowed "the Rio police to capture in the territory of Minas the Sebastianists [monarchists] hidden there". With the outbreak of the Second Naval Revolt on 6 September 1893, admiral Saldanha da Gama , the leader of the revolt, consulted the citizens as to whether they wanted the return of the monarchy or the maintenance of the republic; in response, Afonso Pena published his Manifesto dos Mineiros in

728-601: A gold mine. After graduating with a law degree from the Faculty of Law of São Paulo and becoming a doctor at the same institution, Pena returned to his hometown, where he began to work as an attorney, later moving to Barbacena and becoming known for defending slaves. His political career began in 1874 when he joined the Liberal Party and was elected to the Provincial Assembly of Minas Gerais. In 1878, he

832-538: A joint policy to value coffee, subject to approval by the President of the Republic . Earlier proposals for federal intervention in the coffee market had already been made, notably by Alessandro Vincenzo Siciliano, an Italian-born Brazilian coffee grower and industrialist, in 1903. However, president Rodrigues Alves was reluctant to intervene, due to his liberal and austerity policies. The coffee valorization policy

936-465: A leave of absence from his position as general deputy, beginning his experience in executive positions after being appointed Minister of War in the cabinet of prime minister Martinho Campos at the age of 35. Pena was one of only two civilians to hold the office, the other being Pandiá Calógeras  [ pt ] . Despite being a civilian, he was well received by the military, as he defended their freedom of speech and military reforms, which included

1040-484: A liberal, despite declaring himself a "slaveholder to the core", did not seek to advance the liberal agenda, but attempted to revise the electoral regulation in order to expand the electorate, which led to his fall by a motion of no confidence . Dissatisfied with the reduction in the number of voters, Pena later criticized the law, declaring that "an electorate of 142,000 citizens cannot be the electorate of this Empire, which has 12 million inhabitants". In 1882, Pena took

1144-413: A more protectionist stance, in contrast to his early liberal and laissez-faire ideas. In his own words, his position became that of a "moderate protectionism". He also began to envision the state as a modernizing actor, with the role of promoting economic growth. He later declared that: In modern times, the issue par excellence that preoccupies the attention of governments, statesmen, assemblies, and

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1248-439: A more proactive state action by promoting immigration to Minas Gerais, in particular German immigration  [ pt ] , whose immigrants were perceived as skilled labors, necessary for the development of the state. This was in line with the ideas, common at the time, of social darwinisn and racial determinism. The government actions aimed at bringing entire families, in order to make their establishment permanent. During

1352-425: A process could take place through a federal military intervention with the justification of guaranteeing law and order. In Minas Gerais, the position of Alvim, who had supported Deodoro, became untenable. Alvim faced constant pressure from the radical republicans, and even a separatist threat, when the city of Campanha , in southern Minas Gerais, proclaimed itself the capital of a new state, Minas do Sul. Knowing that

1456-443: A result of the great immigration wave to Brazil at the end of the 19th century, largely contributed to the expansion of the coffee economy. In 1886, a period defined by an expressive increase in coffee prices began. The beginning of this cycle was marked by other movements that occurred at the same time: there was a strong growth in foreign demand, while the supply grew at an increasing yet irregular rhythm due to climatic conditions,

1560-506: A teacher from the Normal School who was the editor of a newspaper. Fonseca complied. Despite being a monarchist, he was gradually being co-opted by republicans. Pena did not understand Cotegipe's attitude towards the incidents. The prime minister believed that repressive measures would be inappropriate. For Pena, however, Cotegipe's passivity encouraged military insubordination. By 1887, the military and republicans were openly plotting

1664-521: A tie. It was then agreed to include both Pena and Alves as chief editors. The journal, focused on debating academic and political issues, was influenced by French authors such as Victor Hugo , Honoré de Balzac , and Émile Zola . Although not a freemason , in the Faculty of Law he joined the Bucha  [ pt ] —a secret student society of a liberal, abolitionist, and republican nature, which

1768-419: A total of 48 thousand votes, taking office on 14 July. The legality of Floriano Peixoto's position as president was questioned by civilians and high-ranking officers of the armed forces, who believed that new elections should be held. On 6 April 1892, 13 senior army and navy officers published a manifesto  [ pt ] calling for new elections. Peixoto's reaction was brutal. The president dismissed

1872-538: Is agitated to solve, in accordance with the principles of justice, the great question of the centuries – the emancipation of an enslaved race". After turning down an invitation to teach at his alma mater , he returned to Minas Gerais, where he began to work as a lawyer, at first practicing law in his hometown and later in Barbacena . There he became known for advocating in defense of slaves and even for helping them escape, for which he came close to being denounced on

1976-501: Is established, parents' attention will be asked to direct their children's career towards attending technical institutes. This would give the following result: after the young men have acquired the knowledge of the subjects taught in these institutes, instead of directing their activities towards public jobs, they will employ them in the most important industries of the State, such as agriculture, extraction and manufacture. The first years of

2080-467: Is not possible to say he did not made nominations based on political criteria rather than individual merit during his political career. This preference would be reflected in his cabinet when president years later. Pena defended the expansion of railways in Minas Gerais and the organization of public education. He was against what he called empregomania , that is, students' excessive preference, at

2184-644: The Minas Geraes -class battleships, which provoked the South American dreadnought race , and both countries hovered on the brink of war. In his final years in the presidency, Pena unsuccessfully tried to nominate David Campista as his successor. Pena died from severe pneumonia in 1909, being succeeded by Nilo Peçanha . Born on 30 November 1847 in Santa Bárbara do Mato Dentro—currently the municipality of Santa Bárbara, Minas Gerais —Afonso Pena

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2288-479: The 1870 Republican Manifesto  [ pt ] , as he considered Brazil was not ready for a regime change. Pena graduated with a Law degree on 23 October 1870. He became a Doctor of Law at the same institution on 29 August 1871 – the only one in his class – after defending his thesis Letra de Câmbio on 19 June of that year. Upon receiving his doctorate, Pena gave a speech in which he expressed his abolitionist thoughts, concluding that "the entire country

2392-439: The 1894 election , despite several calls for him to run in the elections. Morais won the election and became the first civilian president of Brazil. As a reward for his loyalty, Pena was given the rank of brigadier general by Peixoto. His actions also dissipated the threat of a federal intervention in Minas Gerais. During his tenure as state president, Pena strengthened and reformed public education, creating several schools in

2496-612: The Brazilian Navy , with the acquisition of new ships. Pena also supported Cândido Rondon 's expeditions in the Amazon rainforest , which linked it to Rio de Janeiro by telegraph. In the international sphere, Brazil took part in the Hague Convention of 1907 , with a delegation led by Ruy Barbosa , and solved its border issues with neighboring countries. Tensions with Argentina reached a peak due to Brazil's acquisition of

2600-458: The Council of State  [ pt ] by emperor Pedro II the previous year. Despite criticizing nominations based on political affinity, even committing himself to fighting them, Pena could not detach himself from it, so as to not harm his political career. The liberals, now once again in power, had met on 23 May 1889 in the headquarters of the newspaper Tribuna Liberal where they devised

2704-537: The Lazarist priests, and Pena's father was one of its most prominent creditors. At the school, he had theology, ethics, philosophy, mathematics, geometry, history, rhetoric, and foreign language classes. Pena finished his studies in the Caraça School on 16 January 1864 and later moved to the city of São Paulo to study at the Faculty of Law in 1866, which, together with the Faculty of Law of Recife , formed

2808-559: The Leopoldina Railway Company , which was the largest railway in Minas Gerais, approving a measure that forced the company to abide by its contract duties or else lose its concession to operate. He also proposed that members of the judiciary be appointed through public competition, instead of according to political adherence, as had been the case until then; this stance was in line with his preference for personal ability instead of nominations being political, although it

2912-483: The Liberal Party in 1874, beginning his political career that same year and being elected provincial deputy to the 20th legislature in Minas Gerais. He remained in this office until 1878, being successively reelected to the 21st (1876–1877) and 22nd (1878–1879) legislatures, when he was elected general deputy, beginning his term in the Chamber of Deputies in the 17th legislature (1878–1881). Pena's political career

3016-605: The Urca neighborhood. Pena inherited properties from his parents, including a gold mine, which he sold by the end of the 19th century, as its gold production had declined. He also had a textile factory, which he sold in the 1900s, as well as several investments in Brazil and abroad. In order to better manage his investments, Pena was helped by João Ribeiro de Oliveira Sousa, who became president of Crédito Real, then Minas Gerais' largest bank, on Pena's recommendation. Afonso Pena joined

3120-530: The article wizard to submit a draft for review, or request a new article . Search for " Caixa de Conversão " in existing articles. Look for pages within Misplaced Pages that link to this title . Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function . Titles on Misplaced Pages are case sensitive except for

3224-436: The balance of payments , the minister embarked on an ambitious economic program. The idea was to modernize the country in an attempt to save the monarchy. Afonso Celso implemented a network of issuing banks , with the aim of stimulating the economy, which led to unbridled speculation, known as the " Encilhamento ". A large number of new companies was founded, whose capital almost reached that of all companies founded since

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3328-602: The coffee economy , putting into practice the Taubaté Agreement , after which the federal government began to buy production surplus in order to maintain the high price of coffee in international markets. Pena's government promoted the expansion of railways and immigration, the modernization and reorganization of the Brazilian Army with the introduction of the Sortition Law , and the rearmament of

3432-501: The 1820s. Initially, coffee plantations spread through the fertile Paraíba Valley in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Continuing its ascending march, there was an expansion of coffee production in the province of Minas Gerais ( Zona da Mata and the south of the province), at the same time that production was consolidated in the interior of São Paulo. The last 20 years of the Empire of Brazil saw an accentuated development of coffee growing in

3536-482: The 4th vice president of Brazil , under Rodrigues Alves (1903–1906) after the death of Silviano Brandão . Pena was a monarchist . He was the only member of Emperor Pedro II 's cabinet to become president of Brazil and the first Brazilian president to die in office. Pena was born in Santa Bárbara , Minas Gerais , in 1847. His father, Domingos José Teixeira Pena, was a Portuguese immigrant who owned slaves and

3640-500: The Faculty of Law; together they worked to solve the economic crisis caused by the Encilhamento through a set of reforms that sought to contain government spending, restore the country's credit, and revalue the currency's exchange rate. During that time, Pena adopted an even more protectionist stance, suggesting that imported products, where there were equivalent ones produced in Brazil, be taxed, especially textiles and food, which

3744-420: The army's professionalization. Pena was successively reelected to the 18th (1881–1884), 19th (1885), and 20th (1886–1889) legislatures in the Chamber of Deputies. During this period, he defended the increase of municipal autonomy, progressively aligning himself with political and economic liberalism , for which he also supported the non intervention of the State in the economy. In the following years, he

3848-636: The birth of the Brazilian Empire. In the words of Américo Lacombe, "there was a terrible contrast between the government's euphoria, celebrating the electoral victory and the liveliness of the business world. While the military class, especially the young ones, indoctrinated by the positivist agenda, were dissatisfied". On the night of 14 November 1889, low-ranking officers and students from the Military School of Praia Vermelha  [ pt ] rebelled. They left their barracks to attack

3952-439: The capital from Ouro Preto was the most controversial point; Pena was in favor of moving the capital and proposed to postpone the decision until a commission of specialists presented the new possible locations. During his speeches in the constituent assembly, Pena had assumed a conciliatory tone with the more radical republican wings and the old monarchists, who fiercely debated the issue. As state senator, Pena also clashed with

4056-566: The capture of fugitive slaves and prosecuted the abolitionists who helped them. Saraiva fell on 20 August 1885, being succeeded by the conservative João Maurício Vanderlei, the Baron of Cotegipe , thus ending seven years of liberal rule (the Liberal Septennium  [ pt ] ) and Pena's stay in the executive. Cotegipe dissolved the liberal chamber and called for new elections, which were held on 15 January 1886 . Afonso Pena

4160-470: The central government, and disapproving of Floriano Peixoto's actions, Pena urged the people not to join the rebellion, siding with the president against it, as he deemed it necessary to maintain the country's unity. He went as far as to offer the federal government the help of the Public Force of Minas Gerais , if necessary. This did not mean he supported Floriano Peixoto's stay in power, as he wanted

4264-482: The chapter pertaining to inheritance . The success in the elections encouraged Afonso Celso, who was oblivious to the growing deterioration in the military situation. Landowners had withdrawn their support to the government en masse after abolition and the prime minister drew up a loan plan for agriculture in an attempt to gain their sympathy. Afonso Celso defined his program as "making the Republic useless". Taking advantage of high coffee prices and favorable results in

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4368-524: The civil war still raged, but he refused, arguing that he did not want to leave Minas Gerais. Pena only accepted the position of president of the Bank of the Republic, the current Bank of Brazil , which he held from 1895 to 1898; it was the main Brazilian banking institution at the time. Pena's appointment was due to the fact that Rodrigues Alves, then Brazil's Minister of Finance , was his colleague from

4472-414: The commission that was tasked with drafting the state's constitution. As president of the commission, Pena opposed an initial constitutional draft sent to the assembly by the state government, as he deemed it a centralizing one; he argued that the draft should be rejected as it was "inspired by a unitary political model, like the monarchical regime that had just failed". The constitutional draft provided for

4576-451: The country controlled alone three quarters of the entire world supply. In February 1906, the governors of the states of Minas Gerais (Francisco Antônio de Sales), São Paulo (Jorge Tibiriçá Piratininga) and Rio de Janeiro (Nilo Procópio Peçanha, later replaced by Alfredo Backer), met in Taubaté and as a result, on the ninth day of that month, signed an agreement that laid the foundations for

4680-408: The country was expected to grow considerably, giving more legitimacy to elections. However, on 13 August 1881, shortly before the next elections , an executive decree was issued regulating the issuance of the voter's license by introducing a number of requirements, including literacy, and so the number of people eligible to vote fell considerably. The prime minister who followed, Martinho Campos, also

4784-425: The country's intelligentsia at the time. During his studies at the Faculty of Law, Pena was a colleague of Ruy Barbosa, Bias Fortes , Joaquim Nabuco , Castro Alves , and Rodrigues Alves. In 1870 Pena became, alongside Rodrigues Alves, an editor in chief of the faculty's journal Imprensa Acadêmica after a close election. There was supposed to be only one editor in chief, but the election unexpectedly ended in

4888-441: The country's return to civilian rule. Once the naval revolt was defeated, Peixoto's supporters plotted a coup d'état to keep him in power as a dictator. Pena sent a letter to the president, dated 23 January 1894, warning him of the need to ensure that the next elections took place normally. For Américo Lacombe, the letter had the tone of an ultimatum. In this sense, Pena supported the presidential candidacy of Prudente de Morais for

4992-575: The course as early as 1893: Antônio Gomes de Lima, Augusto Cesar Pedreira, and Rodolfo Jacob. As no consensus was reached regarding where the new capital of Minas Gerais would be, the question was left open in the State Constitution, which only established that the capital of Minas Gerais should be moved to another location, without specifying where that would be. It was then agreed that the Minas Gerais Congress would decide

5096-503: The court in Rio de Janeiro by a local military officer. Despite this, he was concerned with the economic effects the immediate abolition of slavery could cause; for this reason, he was in favor of compensating slave owners after abolition and also supported immigration as a way to replace slave labor. This brought him closer to other politicians of his time, especially the conservatives , who, according to Cláudia Viscardi, were "responsible for

5200-470: The creation of the new state constitution. Pena was elected for the position in 1891 and presided over the commission that was tasked with drafting the constitution. After resigning his position in the Senate, Pena was elected president of Minas Gerais by consensus of the several political currents in the state, serving from 1892 to 1894. It was during his administration that Belo Horizonte was established as

5304-446: The development of Minas Gerais. Afonso Pena sought to improve the state's economy by solving some of its most immediate issues; these included the loss of income in coffee exports due to the fact that, by being a landlocked state, Minas Gerais' production had to be exported through the port of Rio de Janeiro , which kept the tax revenues. To tackle this issue, Pena created a dry port in the municipality of Juiz de Fora , where most of

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5408-434: The election of the governor by the state congress and the election to the senate by a "special electorate", which Pena opposed. The very existence of the Minas Gerais senate, thus forming a bicameral legislature, was disputed, with David Campista being its biggest opponent. Campista accused the senate of "disguising aristocratic tendencies". In response, Afonso Pena argued that the senate was a " moderating power " and perfected

5512-548: The emperor, whom he considered to be a man of "great knowledge and deeds". He had become one of the most prestigious politicians of the Empire. The new republican government, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca, appointed Cesário Alvim as president of Minas Gerais. Alvim had not joined the republican movement until late, which caused dissatisfaction among Minas Gerais' so-called "historical republicans", who felt betrayed. Pena's retirement from politics, however, did not last long: as he

5616-421: The fact that nobody can do everything, nor can one always do things. I ask God to enlighten the spirit of those who fight, making them see that the blood of children, women, the elderly, and our brothers does not fertilize – on the contrary, it sterilizes the soil of the homeland. Thus, despite housing several opponents of the federal government in his state, including monarchists and rebels, who fled persecution by

5720-445: The faculty viable. He ceded public buildings, set up committees in municipalities to raise funds, gave up his rest [time] as president of the State to prepare classes, as well as his pay for services provided to the faculty. The institution formally began to function on 2 January 1893; a federal decree of 21 February 1893 granted it the status of a "free faculty", which equated it to official federal institutions. Three students completed

5824-467: The federal government was committed to the creation of the Caixa de Conversão  [ pt ] in order to stabilize the exchange rate, and thus, the income of coffee growers in domestic currency. The agreement started the first coffee price defense operation, which was made up of a policy of valuing the product and another of stabilizing the exchange rate. Coffee production in Brazil was established in

5928-437: The first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log , and see Why was the page I created deleted? Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caixa_de_Conversão " Afonso Pena Afonso Augusto Moreira Pena (30 November 1847 – 14 June 1909), often referred to as Afonso Pena ,

6032-454: The future state capital (which at that time was Ouro Preto ) and the Faculty of Law of Minas Gerais was founded. After presiding over the Bank of the Republic from 1895 to 1898, Pena became vice president to Rodrigues Alves in 1903. As vice president, he also served as president of the Senate . Pena became president of Brazil in 1906 after an uncontested single-candidate election. He was the first Brazilian president to advocate intervening in

6136-579: The government. Afonso Celso took refuge in the Army Headquarters. At dawn on the 15th, the rebels went to get Benjamin Constant to lead them. Once informed of what was happening, Deodoro da Fonseca left his home, despite being seriously ill, and went to lead the troops, who positioned their cannons against the Army HQ. There was no resistance. A provisional government was organized at night. It

6240-481: The imperial era, Pena had argued against the proposal of bringing Chinese immigrants, then called " coolies ", as he deemed it "the introduction of another deleterious element to the many that are in our country" and that it would contribute to the "decay of the race". Despite his efforts, the number of people that immigrated to Minas Gerais was smaller than to other Brazilian states, which offered better payment and working conditions. Its system of indentured servitude ,

6344-530: The issue and, at the end of 1891, it indicated Barbacena, Belo Horizonte, Paraúna, Várzea do Marçal, and Juiz de Fora as possible locations. A law was also approved determining the formation of a Technical Committee  [ pt ] tasked with presenting its opinion on the suggested locations. The committee's members were appointed by Afonso Pena in December 1892 and its leadership fell to Aarão Reis  [ pt ] . The Technical Committee's opinion

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6448-499: The latter brought to power by Peixoto. Known as the Federalist Revolution , the rebels wanted to march north and reach São Paulo . Pena spoke out against the rebels and in favor of the government, with the aim of keeping Minas Gerais away from conflicts. As president of Minas Gerais, he opposed Peixoto's authoritarianism and gave sanctuary to his opponents in the state, notably Olavo Bilac and Carlos de Laet . Laet,

6552-453: The legislative process, without which the lower house would "reach omnipotence". The final constitutional draft, promulgated on 15 June 1891 with several amendments proposed by Pena, granted more autonomy for the municipalities, as he had envisioned years before, and established a bicameral legislature, with the senators being elected by direct vote; it also provided for the creation of a new state capital to replace Ouro Preto. The change of

6656-496: The local climate, and cholera epidemics made Minas Gerais less attractive for immigrants. Pena left the government of Minas Gerais on 7 September 1894, being succeeded by Bias Fortes. Upon leaving office, he was invited by president Prudente de Morais to occupy a position in the Supreme Federal Court and become Brazil's plenipotentiary minister to Uruguay, in which he could help to pacify Rio Grande do Sul, where

6760-541: The mobilization of planters, who came together to create a strategy that would keep the price of the product valued in times of crisis. Since the Panic of 1893 , which particularly affected the United States, the main buyer of Brazilian coffee, the price of coffee fell significantly. Brazilian intervention in the international level of coffee prices was only possible thanks to its dominance in international production, as

6864-468: The more or less appropriate treatment given to the plantantions and the fact that periods of great production were followed by a transitional period of plant exhaustion, which largely stimulated speculation . Due to the expansion of demand and the dynamics of supply, the international price of coffee doubled between 1885 and 1890, further stimulating the expansion of coffee plantations. The large expansion of production and other activities related to coffee, on

6968-475: The most prominent politicians in the Empire of Brazil . They had nine children, including Afonso Júnior, who was later Minister of Justice and Internal Affairs to president Artur Bernardes and a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters , and Octávio Moreira Pena  [ pt ] , an engineer who carried out several public works in Rio de Janeiro, including the landfill that gave rise to

7072-453: The newspaper O Paiz  [ pt ] on 11 December, in which he declared: Everyone knows that I did not applaud, and rather regretted, the revolution of 1889, which destroyed the monarchy. I understood, however, from the outset, that the monarchy could no longer be restored in conditions to give us: peace, order and guide the country towards its aggrandizement. Patience is the essential virtue of democracies, and their beauty lies in

7176-432: The officers, decreed a state of emergency, suspended constitutional guarantees, deported his enemies to remote regions in the country, and carried out mass arrests. Peixoto's radical followers, known as Jacobins, could not stand seeing Minas Gerais outside the government's influence and plotted Pena's fall. Colonel Carlos Teles  [ pt ] , commander of the 31st battalion, intended to overthrow Pena and take over

7280-405: The one hand, brought some wealth and progress to the country, but, on the other hand, resulted in overproduction which caused the fall of prices. Initially, the effects of this fall were mitigated by the devaluation of the Brazilian currency. At the beginning of the 20th century, the overproduction crisis began to take shape. Coffee prices on the international market dropped significantly, prompting

7384-623: The press is economics. The theory of the gendarme State, simple maintainer of order and dispenser of justice, has had its time, today finding few publicists who support it in its purity, and is positively contradicted by the politics of civilized peoples, without exception in England. Another is the dominant concept: the high mission of the State also encompasses caring for the people, exercising its beneficial action in areas of social activity, provided that individual initiative, in its various forms, proves to be impotent or insufficient. Pena also adopted

7488-532: The pressure of domestic supply on the trend of falling prices observed. However, he himself agrees that such governmental action would be very difficult because it did not correspond to the prevailing political interests at the time, linked to the export of coffee. The Taubaté Agreement only helped to postpone the imminent end of the coffee cycle in Brazil, which happened with the crash of the New York Stock Exchange in 1929. The Taubaté Agreement

7592-527: The progressive delay of the end of slavery in Brazil ". Afonso Pena married Maria Guilhermina de Oliveira  [ pt ] on 23 January 1875. The couple went on their honeymoon to Rio de Janeiro, where they met emperor Pedro II . Guilhermina was the daughter of João Fernandes de Oliveira Pena, the Viscount of Carandaí, and the niece of Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão , the Marquis of Paraná, one of

7696-521: The province's economy, which largely relied on coffee. In any case, he later voted in favor of the Golden Law , which finally abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888, but expressed his concerns regarding the effects the law would have. On 24 October, in a long speech criticizing the João Alfredo cabinet, which had succeeded Cotegipe, Pena examined the consequences of abolition and drew attention to

7800-458: The republic in Brazil were plagued by disputes and political instability. The Brazilian Empire had been overthrown in a bloodless military coup, but the next decade was a bloody one. Deodoro da Fonseca dissolved Congress  [ pt ] on 3 November 1891 and Pena resigned his position in the state senate in protest, arguing that "the coexistence of constitutional powers with the state of dictatorship proclaimed by president Deodoro da Fonseca

7904-402: The rise of republicanism among the conservative classes, as "it is certain that many see in the new regime a means of extorting the compensation [for their freed slaves] that they were unable to obtain under this regime". João Alfredo was succeeded by Afonso Celso on 7 June 1889, thus ending Pena's stay in the opposition. Due to his proximity to Afonso Celso, Pena had been appointed a member of

8008-581: The so-called "Oeste Paulista" (Western São Paulo), up until that point an almost deserted region and whose vacant lands were quickly invaded by the new culture. The inauguration of railroads such as the São Paulo Railway Company in 1867, which crossed the Serra do Mar , connecting the coffee growing areas in the interior of São Paulo to the Port of Santos , and the abundance of cheap workforce,

8112-549: The state government. Aware of the plot and feeling his position threatened, Pena decided to send a letter to Peixoto, asking the president to directly intervene with the colonel. On 23 February 1893, Teles was transferred to Bagé , thus ending the threat. On 2 February 1893, parallel to the events unfolding in the capital, a civil war broke out in Rio Grande do Sul under the leadership of Gaspar da Silveira Martins and Gumercindo Saraiva , against governor Júlio de Castilhos ,

8216-429: The state's coffee production was located, and made an agreement with president Floriano Peixoto by which each coffee-producing state would keep its production's revenue, thus greatly reducing Minas Gerais' dependency on Rio de Janeiro. At that time, Pena also defended the taxation of imported goods as a way to promote local production. Ever since his tenure in executive positions in the 1880s, he began to deviate towards

8320-552: The state's interior, built railways, modernized the tax system, and promoted public debt amortization. He was also the founder of the Free Faculty of Law of Minas Gerais, in Ouro Preto, on 13 November 1892, being elected the Faculty's first director, and was also a teacher at the institution, lecturing on financial sciences and public accounting. According to Luiz Arnaut, Pena "used all the resources at his disposal to make

8424-516: The surpluses. The State acquired the product for resale in more favorable moments until 1924, the year in which the Coffee Institute of São Paulo was created, from when the intervention started to take place indirectly. Also according to Celso Furtado, the biggest flaw of this policy of artificial valorization of coffee was that the government did not encourage the diversification of Brazilian exports, through subsidies, in order to alleviate

8528-496: The time, for public jobs, which consumed public finances. This was also the opinion of other politicians at the time. For this reason, he defended technical education. In his own words: Empregomania is an endemic disease in our country. What orientation do parents give their children? They send them to the faculties of law, engineering and medicine, and many only wait to be placed in jobs in public administration, thus sterilizing many activities. I think that, once technical education

8632-492: The two options opined in favor of Várzea do Marçal, which was preferred by deputies from the south of the state. Belo Horizonte's detractors claimed the place was unhealthy, with inadequate topography and little water. They also argued that it had poor soil for agriculture and pointed to the need to compensate the local landowners. Finally, the two places were debated in the plenary, with Belo Horizonte winning by just two votes, 30 against 28. Fourteen congressmen were not present at

8736-466: The voting. Thus, on 13 December 1893, the state's legislature met in Barbacena and approved the law that provided for the construction of Belo Horizonte within a maximum period of four years in what was then the old colonial village of Curral d'el Rey, replacing Ouro Preto as the state's capital; the law had been proposed by Afonso Pena. Ouro Preto's geographic features were considered an obstacle to

8840-565: Was "examined and debated". By 1886, however, the main issue was the so-called " Military Question ", a series of incidents that began in 1884 between the military and the civilian authorities. News of the incidents was alarming. On 30 September, Pena requested explanations about an incident in Rio Grande do Sul , where officers and students from the Military School demanded that the provincial president, Deodoro da Fonseca , fire

8944-493: Was Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and Public Works in the cabinet of Lafayette Rodrigues (1883–1884), and Interior and Justice in the cabinet of José Antônio Saraiva (1885). As Minister of Justice, Pena entirely reformed the police and improved the prison system; in this office he was also one of signatories of the Saraiva-Cotegipe Law , which granted freedom to slaves aged 60 and over. However, he reinforced

9048-411: Was a Brazilian lawyer, professor, and politician who served as the sixth president of Brazil , from 1906 until his death in 1909. Pena was elected in 1906 , the chosen successor of president Rodrigues Alves . Pena was the first politician from Minas Gerais to win the presidency, ending the series of politicians from São Paulo who had held the presidency since 1894. Before his presidency, he served as

9152-480: Was a conservative majority. Pena was against this path, joining a dissident wing within the party. Cansanção fell on 28 March 1880, as desired by Pena. His successor, also liberal José Antônio Saraiva , then decided to carry out the electoral reform by means of an ordinary law. The Saraiva Law , as it became known, was finally approved on 9 January 1881, introducing direct vote in Brazil, the voter's license, and allowing non-Catholics to vote. The number of electors in

9256-401: Was a fervent catholic and sympathetic to the monarchy in Brazil. His ideas distanced him from the Brazilian positivists, who defended the separation of Church and State and the creation of a military republic in the country. Two other movements divided Brazil during his years at the Faculty of Law: abolitionism and republicanism . Pena supported the former but not the latter, refusing to sign

9360-470: Was decided that pregnant slaves would no longer work in the mines from the sixth month of pregnancy onwards, and their only task would be "to cook or wash clothes". After receiving his first schooling at his mother's house from private tutors, Pena went on to study at the Caraça School  [ pt ] in 1857, at the age of ten. The school, isolated from major urban centers, was maintained by

9464-612: Was delivered in July 1893 and the issue was once again the subject of intense debate in the state congress. Politicians from different parts of Minas Gerais demanded the capital be moved to their respective regions, but in the end the Technical Committee pointed to Belo Horizonte and Várzea do Marçal as the best places. Afonso Pena preferred Belo Horizonte, but the Congressional Committee tasked with analyzing

9568-549: Was elected general deputy for Minas Gerais. In the succeeding years he reconciled legislative work with some periods occupying ministries—Ministry of War (1882), Agriculture (1883–1884), and Justice (1885). After the proclamation of the Republic , Pena withdrew from public life; however, he was soon called upon to join the Republican Party of Minas Gerais (PRM) and run for the State Senate in order to help with

9672-414: Was elected in his 3rd district with 615 votes out of 863 electors. Minas Gerais elected 11 liberals out of 20 deputies, the largest liberal caucus in the Chamber of Deputies. In opposition, Pena became a staunch critic of the government, monitoring and analyzing all its actions: the signing of railway contracts, public works, the soil examination in Rio de Janeiro, etc. In Américo Lacombe's words, everything

9776-505: Was famous for being a conciliatory politician, he was invited by the newly founded Republican Party of Minas Gerais (PRM) to be a candidate for the State's Senate  [ pt ] , and help the Minas Gerais' Constituent Assembly, in 1891. Pena was then elected for the 1st legislature in the state's senate (1891–1895), helping in Minas Gerais' transition from province to state by ameliorating its political conflicts and presiding over

9880-417: Was incompatible". This act distanced him from Alvim and gave him the support of most of Minas Gerais' elite. Tensions were high in the federal government and Deodoro ended up resigning on 23 November 1891, being succeeded by vice president Floriano Peixoto . Upon assuming government, Peixoto reconvened Congress and began a process of deposing the state governors who had supported Deodoro da Fonseca. Such

9984-608: Was initially sponsored by Martinho Campos and Afonso Celso , two prominent politicians who helped him in his rise in the Liberal Party. The liberals' rise to power in 1878 came after a decade in ostracism (the so-called Conservative Decade  [ pt ] ), being tasked by the emperor with carrying out an electoral reform to establish direct voting . The party's rise to power had not occurred on its own merit, and Pena alerted his companions to its unstable position. The new liberal prime minister , João Lins Cansanção ,

10088-487: Was inspired by the German Burschenschaft associations and founded by professor Julius Frank —and became chief of Bucha 's "General Communion". This association helped students that could not afford to pay for their studies. Pena maintained contact with other Bucha members, even after finishing his studies at the faculty. Pena was an adept of natural law and an opponent of positivism , as he

10192-408: Was out of step with the party's main current, leaving a pessimistic impression on Pena. The issue of direct voting, the main point of the liberal program, was the subject of debates about which path should be adopted: a constitutional reform or the approval of an ordinary law . Most liberals were in favor of a constitutional reform, which would imply deliberation of the issue by the Senate, where there

10296-440: Was proclaimed, he returned to Barbacena and withdrew from public life, saddened by the banishment of emperor Pedro II  [ pt ] . He thought about abandoning politics to resume his law career. Like many other monarchist politicians of his time, he ended up adopting a "resigned acceptance" to the new regime, as he feared any reaction could lead to a civil war. Pena remained a convinced monarchist and continued to defend

10400-480: Was supposedly the first to adopt the name "Pena". While initially following a military career in the National Guard  [ pt ] , Domingos later abandoned it; his earnings were sufficient to provide the family with a standard of living described as "comfortable". Afonso's mother came from an influential family in Santa Bárbara politics. Thus, Afonso's family was part of Minas Gerais ' elite. As

10504-477: Was the end of the monarchy in the country and the beginning of the First Brazilian Republic . The work on the civil code was interrupted. That same day, Pena sent a telegram to Afonso Celso, who had been arrested, expressing his solidarity. Pena was pessimistic about the provisional government, later declaring "what we have [now] is not a republic—it is pure militarism". After the republic

10608-422: Was the seventh of twelve children of Domingos José Teixeira Penna and Anna Moreira Teixeira Penna; being his mother's firstborn, as she was his father's second wife. Domingos was a Portuguese immigrant from São Salvador da Ribeira de Pena (also spelled "da Penha" or "Peña") and in the new country he owned land, a gold mine, and a large number of slaves. Domingos' father, Manuel José de Carvalho Penha (b. 1769),

10712-404: Was then carried out by his successor, Afonso Pena . Celso Furtado , in his work Formação Econômica do Brasil , summarized the measures as follows: As a result, coffee prices were kept artificially high, guaranteeing coffee growers' profits. These, instead of reducing coffee production, continued to produce it on a large scale, forcing the government to contract more loans to continue acquiring

10816-1342: Was used to enrich coffee owners, who invested in the industrialization of São Paulo, since the production had guaranteed sales. With the impossibility of paying the debts that the São Paulo government contracted abroad after the 1929 crisis, Getúlio Vargas ' government assumed all debts by nationalizing them in 1930. Caixa de Convers%C3%A3o Look for Caixa de Conversão on one of Misplaced Pages's sister projects : [REDACTED] Wiktionary (dictionary) [REDACTED] Wikibooks (textbooks) [REDACTED] Wikiquote (quotations) [REDACTED] Wikisource (library) [REDACTED] Wikiversity (learning resources) [REDACTED] Commons (media) [REDACTED] Wikivoyage (travel guide) [REDACTED] Wikinews (news source) [REDACTED] Wikidata (linked database) [REDACTED] Wikispecies (species directory) Misplaced Pages does not have an article with this exact name. Please search for Caixa de Conversão in Misplaced Pages to check for alternative titles or spellings. You need to log in or create an account and be autoconfirmed to create new articles. Alternatively, you can use

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