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111-539: Despite the name, the scene is symbolic, and to date there is no known physical evidence that patrons of the Roman cult ever performed such a rite. Like all Greco-Roman mysteries, the Mithraic Mysteries was limited to initiates, and there is very little known about the cult's beliefs or practices. However, several images of the bull include a dorsuale ribbon or blanket, which was a Roman convention to identify

222-459: A canid (commonly identified as a dog), a serpent and a scorpion also appear in most tauroctony scenes; the dog and serpent are typically set as reaching for the wound, while a scorpion is typically set at the genitals of the dying bull. Many reliefs also include a bird, commonly identified as a raven, somewhere in the scene. Not infrequently, particularly in reliefs from the Rhine and Danube frontiers,

333-504: A depiction of the tauroctony scene belonged to the standard furniture of every mithraeum . At least one depiction would be mounted on the wall at the far end of the space where ritual activity took place, often in a niche dressed to be especially cavelike. Richly furnished mithraea, such as one in Stockstadt am Main , had multiple cult reliefs. The scenes can be roughly divided into two groups. The "simple" depictions, which include just

444-710: A facet of their personalities. According to the Theogony Nike, Zelus, Kratos, and Bia "...will not live apart from Zeus... nor go except where the god goes before them, but they sit for ever beside heavy-booming Zeus." Nike and her siblings achieved these honorable positions by Zeus's side during the Titanomachy . During the war with the Titans Zeus called all the gods to Olympus to determine their allegiance. He declared that any god that chose to align with him against Kronos would receive his honor and favor. Of

555-529: A facet of their personalities. According to the Theogony Nike, Zelus, Kratos, and Bia "...will not live apart from Zeus... nor go except where the god goes before them, but they sit for ever beside heavy-booming Zeus." Nike and her siblings achieved these honorable positions by Zeus's side during the Titanomachy . During the war with the Titans Zeus called all the gods to Olympus to determine their allegiance. He declared that any god that chose to align with him against Kronos would receive his honor and favor. Of

666-491: A hurtling from somewhere. This statue is speculated to be from the Hellenistic period according to Andrew Parkin. The statue is made of white marble and is seventy-three centimeters tall. Nike herself is posed atop a globe, which is acting as the base. While Nike's forearms and wings are missing the sockets for attaching her wings can be seen on her back. The goddess is standing with both legs straight and together. Her head

777-431: A hurtling from somewhere. This statue is speculated to be from the Hellenistic period according to Andrew Parkin. The statue is made of white marble and is seventy-three centimeters tall. Nike herself is posed atop a globe, which is acting as the base. While Nike's forearms and wings are missing the sockets for attaching her wings can be seen on her back. The goddess is standing with both legs straight and together. Her head

888-459: A polis-cult, a cult funded and overseen by the Athenian city-state. While the decree does not state the identity of the new priestess, a verse epitaph on a marble stele funerary monument reveals that the first priestess of Athena Nike to be selected democratically by lot was Myrrhine, daughter of Kallimachos. According to decree IG i^3 36, she would have received a portion of the sacrifice and

999-403: A polis-cult, a cult funded and overseen by the Athenian city-state. While the decree does not state the identity of the new priestess, a verse epitaph on a marble stele funerary monument reveals that the first priestess of Athena Nike to be selected democratically by lot was Myrrhine, daughter of Kallimachos. According to decree IG i^3 36, she would have received a portion of the sacrifice and

1110-447: A sacrificial animal, so it is fairly certain that the killing of the bull represents a sacrificial act. Because the main bull-killing scene is often accompanied by explicit depictions of the sun, moon, and stars, it is also fairly certain that the scene has astrological connotations. However, despite dozens of theories on the subject, none has received widespread acceptance. While the basic bull-killing image appears to have been adopted from

1221-630: A scepter with an eagle perched atop it in his left hand. Pheidias's cult statue of Athena from the Parthenon in Athens also held a smaller Nike statuette in one hand and a spear in the other. According to Pausanias, this Nike statue was roughly four cubits tall (about seventy-two inches). Both Nike statues in Zeus's and Athena's hands were winged. Nike typically appears without wings in Greek sculpture when she

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1332-417: A scepter with an eagle perched atop it in his left hand. Pheidias's cult statue of Athena from the Parthenon in Athens also held a smaller Nike statuette in one hand and a spear in the other. According to Pausanias, this Nike statue was roughly four cubits tall (about seventy-two inches). Both Nike statues in Zeus's and Athena's hands were winged. Nike typically appears without wings in Greek sculpture when she

1443-418: A similar depiction of Nike , and it is certain that the bull-killing symbolism and the ancillary elements together tell a story (i.e. the cult myth, the cult's mystery , told only to initiates), that story has been lost and is now unknown. Following several decades of increasingly convoluted theories, Mithraic scholarship is now generally disinclined to speculation. Whether as a painting or as carved monument,

1554-761: A stipend of fifty drachmas paid for by the kolakretai . While neither decrees specified the tenure of her office, Blok proposes that Myrrhine would have likely served for life since that was the tradition for Athenian women serving in cultic offices. Her responsibilities are described in the Myrrhine epigram ( IG i^3 1330) and include maintaining the sanctuary and its statues. Nike (mythology) In Greek mythology and ancient religion , Nike ( English: / ˈ n aɪ k i / ; Ancient Greek : Νίκη , romanized :  Nike , lit.   'victory'; Ancient Greek pronunciation: [nǐː.kɛː] , modern : [ˈni.ci] )

1665-517: Is "actually in serious conflict with known Iranian theology", given Mithra's role in Iranian scripture as a "guardian of livestock", and whose stock epithet is "protector of pastures". Simply put: unlike Roman Mithras, Iranian Mithra does not do any bull-killing. Recently, the iconographic reliefs of a bird and a bull, which are found in Iran, have been compared to the tauroctony by Iranian scholars. In

1776-422: Is almost fully extended. With his left hand, Mithras pulls back the head of the bull by the nostrils or the muzzle (never by the horns, which – if at all represented – are short). In his right hand, Mithras usually holds a knife or short sword plunged into the neck/shoulder of the bull. Alternatively ( CIMRM 2196), the knife is sticking into the bull's neck, and Mithras has his arm raised as if in triumph. Mithras

1887-455: Is also "statistically negligible". At the same time, the elements of the tauroctony scene all belong to the story that the designer of the scene wished to tell, and the bull is present primarily because Mithras kills one, not primarily because the bull is Taurus and/or the moon. Occasionally, the busts of two or four wind gods are found in the corners of the cult reliefs. The figures of other protective gods also sometimes appear. Other than that

1998-662: Is also supported by the Bibliotheca where "...Nice, Cratos, Zelos, and Bia" are described as the children of the Titans Pallas and Styx. In another source, Homeric Hymn 8 , Ares the God of War is portrayed as the "...father of warlike Victory." Nike is often portrayed in literature in close association with Zeus or Athena. She is typically described as either an attendant of the Greek Gods Zeus and Athena or as

2109-428: Is also supported by the Bibliotheca where "...Nice, Cratos, Zelos, and Bia" are described as the children of the Titans Pallas and Styx. In another source, Homeric Hymn 8 , Ares the God of War is portrayed as the "...father of warlike Victory." Nike is often portrayed in literature in close association with Zeus or Athena. She is typically described as either an attendant of the Greek Gods Zeus and Athena or as

2220-484: Is associated with victory in an athletic competition rather than only a military competition. Typically, Nike is the one who bestows the victor with the prize. In Bacchylides Ode 11 she is introduced with the stock epithet "giver of swift gifts..." However, Nike is also represented in some sources as the prize in a contest to symbolize victory: "... the blossoms of glory-bringing Victory nurture for men golden, conspicuous fame throughout their lives..." In this source Nike

2331-484: Is associated with victory in an athletic competition rather than only a military competition. Typically, Nike is the one who bestows the victor with the prize. In Bacchylides Ode 11 she is introduced with the stock epithet "giver of swift gifts..." However, Nike is also represented in some sources as the prize in a contest to symbolize victory: "... the blossoms of glory-bringing Victory nurture for men golden, conspicuous fame throughout their lives..." In this source Nike

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2442-632: Is being represented as an attribute of another deity, such as Athena. The Athena Nike statue within the Temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Acropolis depicts the Greek goddess wingless and seated with a pomegranate in her right hand and her helmet in her left hand. According to Andrew Stewart the doffed helmet and pomegranate are symbols of assistance, fertility, and peace. According to the Suda , Athena Nike without wings represents calm civility,

2553-462: Is being represented as an attribute of another deity, such as Athena. The Athena Nike statue within the Temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Acropolis depicts the Greek goddess wingless and seated with a pomegranate in her right hand and her helmet in her left hand. According to Andrew Stewart the doffed helmet and pomegranate are symbols of assistance, fertility, and peace. According to the Suda , Athena Nike without wings represents calm civility,

2664-470: Is bent downwards slightly so that her gaze rests on the ground rather than the viewer. As a result of this, her body also leans slightly downwards. Her winged, straight, and slightly bent posture evokes the appearance that she is looking down at where to place her feet as she descends. The Nike of Corfu also has a hollowed out back which has resulted in Parkin, C. Vermeule, and D. Von Bothmer to hypothesize that

2775-417: Is bent downwards slightly so that her gaze rests on the ground rather than the viewer. As a result of this, her body also leans slightly downwards. Her winged, straight, and slightly bent posture evokes the appearance that she is looking down at where to place her feet as she descends. The Nike of Corfu also has a hollowed out back which has resulted in Parkin, C. Vermeule, and D. Von Bothmer to hypothesize that

2886-425: Is described as an emissary of Athena who was sent to aid Zeus in his battle against Typhon. When the many snake-headed giant Typhon laid siege to Olympus in the final days of the Titanomachy , Nike, in the form of Leto , reproached Zeus for his hesitancy in confronting Typhon and urged him to gather his thunderbolts in preparation to defend Olympus. In her speech she mentions all the gods that have given up and fled

2997-425: Is described as an emissary of Athena who was sent to aid Zeus in his battle against Typhon. When the many snake-headed giant Typhon laid siege to Olympus in the final days of the Titanomachy , Nike, in the form of Leto , reproached Zeus for his hesitancy in confronting Typhon and urged him to gather his thunderbolts in preparation to defend Olympus. In her speech she mentions all the gods that have given up and fled

3108-647: Is no consensus on the issue. The image was adapted for a Prix de Rome sculpture of The Madness of Orestes by Raymond Barthélemy (1860); the prize-winning plaster model remains in the collection of the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts , where it was included in the 2004 travelling exhibition Dieux et Mortels . Nike (mythology) In Greek mythology and ancient religion , Nike ( English: / ˈ n aɪ k i / ; Ancient Greek : Νίκη , romanized :  Nike , lit.   'victory'; Ancient Greek pronunciation: [nǐː.kɛː] , modern : [ˈni.ci] )

3219-486: Is not limited to strictly military prowess. Instead, Nike observes victory in any field including musical, athletic, and or military competitions. For instance in Pindar Nemean 5, the victorious athlete Euthymenes of Aegina has "twice fallen into the arms of Victory" and achieved fame. In Bacchylides Ode 12 Nike encourages Teisias of Aegina to compete in the wrestling matches at Nemea. In both these examples Nike

3330-424: Is not limited to strictly military prowess. Instead, Nike observes victory in any field including musical, athletic, and or military competitions. For instance in Pindar Nemean 5, the victorious athlete Euthymenes of Aegina has "twice fallen into the arms of Victory" and achieved fame. In Bacchylides Ode 12 Nike encourages Teisias of Aegina to compete in the wrestling matches at Nemea. In both these examples Nike

3441-541: Is portrayed as a garland of flowers to be bestowed upon the victor during the Panhellenic Games . Nike alone is often depicted in Greek art winged and carrying a symbol of victory, such as a laurel wreath or a palm frond. Statues of her attempt to evoke a sense of flight. In the Archaic period of ancient Greek sculpture Nike often appears in a "kneeling run" pose or "knielaufen" pose with her head turned to

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3552-420: Is portrayed as a garland of flowers to be bestowed upon the victor during the Panhellenic Games . Nike alone is often depicted in Greek art winged and carrying a symbol of victory, such as a laurel wreath or a palm frond. Statues of her attempt to evoke a sense of flight. In the Archaic period of ancient Greek sculpture Nike often appears in a "kneeling run" pose or "knielaufen" pose with her head turned to

3663-533: Is reddish brown. In the relief from the Barbarini mithraeum ( CIMRM 390), the bull is light brown and Mithras' tunic and trousers are green. "The model for the Mithraic bull-killing scene was probably the type of winged Nike (Victory) killing the bull, which became a fashionable image once again in the reign of Trajan." The similarity is so great that Cumont mistook CIMRM 25 from near Baris to be related to

3774-404: Is the goddess who personifies victory in any field including art, music, war, and athletics. She is often portrayed in Greek art as "Winged Victory" in the motion of flight; however, she can also appear without wings as "Wingless Victory" when she is being portrayed as an attribute of another deity such as Athena . In Greek literature Nike is described as both an attribute and attendant to

3885-404: Is the goddess who personifies victory in any field including art, music, war, and athletics. She is often portrayed in Greek art as "Winged Victory" in the motion of flight; however, she can also appear without wings as "Wingless Victory" when she is being portrayed as an attribute of another deity such as Athena . In Greek literature Nike is described as both an attribute and attendant to

3996-412: Is turned to observe the viewer instead of the place she is running to. Richard Neer proposes that this posture with the running stance, wings, and flowing garments were meant to evoke the swift speed of the goddess. As time goes on Nike's legs begin to straighten and her movement becomes a more subtle alighting movement with a slight forward component. An example of a transitional phase in movement from

4107-412: Is turned to observe the viewer instead of the place she is running to. Richard Neer proposes that this posture with the running stance, wings, and flowing garments were meant to evoke the swift speed of the goddess. As time goes on Nike's legs begin to straighten and her movement becomes a more subtle alighting movement with a slight forward component. An example of a transitional phase in movement from

4218-587: Is unclear whether she originated from a character trait of the Greek goddess Athena or has always existed as an independent deity. Her origin story in Greek mythology is also slightly ambiguous, with the Theogony claiming Nike to be the daughter of Styx and Pallas while the Homeric Hymns describe Ares , the god of war, as being Nike's father. Her Roman equivalent is the goddess Victoria . While

4329-421: Is unclear whether she originated from a character trait of the Greek goddess Athena or has always existed as an independent deity. Her origin story in Greek mythology is also slightly ambiguous, with the Theogony claiming Nike to be the daughter of Styx and Pallas while the Homeric Hymns describe Ares , the god of war, as being Nike's father. Her Roman equivalent is the goddess Victoria . While

4440-428: Is usually dressed in a knee-length long-sleeved tunic ( tunica manicata ), closed boots and breeches ( anaxyrides , bracae ). Mithras' cape, if he wears one, is usually spread open, as if flying. Occasionally, Mithras is nude ( CIMRM 2196, 2327; 201; 1275). On his head, Mithras usually wears a phrygian cap , like the one worn by Attis . The tail of the bull occasionally appears to end in an ear of wheat. The blood from

4551-490: The praetorian prefect under Trajan . Like the other five earliest monuments of the Mithraic mysteries, it dates to around 100 CE. Although there are numerous minor variations, the basic features of the central tauroctony scene is highly uniform: Mithras half-straddles a bull that has been forced to the ground. The bull invariably appears in profile, facing to his left (the viewers’ right). In original (un-reconstructed) depictions, Mithras invariably has his head turned away from

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4662-542: The "kneeling run" to the alighting and striding pose is Paionios 's statue of Nike discovered in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia . This statue of Nike was made of Parian marble and was dedicated to Zeus by the Messenians and Naupaktians around 420 BCE during the Classical period . The statue originally stood near the temple of Zeus on an 8.45m high, three sided pillar. The statue itself was roughly two meters high and

4773-428: The "kneeling run" to the alighting and striding pose is Paionios 's statue of Nike discovered in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia . This statue of Nike was made of Parian marble and was dedicated to Zeus by the Messenians and Naupaktians around 420 BCE during the Classical period . The statue originally stood near the temple of Zeus on an 8.45m high, three sided pillar. The statue itself was roughly two meters high and

4884-667: The Greek word νίκη ( nikē ) is of uncertain etymology, R.S.P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin . However, it has also been speculated to have derived from the Proto-Indo-European neik - meaning to attack or "start vehemently". If this is true it would make the word cognate with Ancient Greek νεῖκος (neîkos, "strife") and Lithuanian ap-ni̇̀kti ("to attack"). It is also spelled Νίκα ( Nika ) in Doric and Aeolic Greek dialects. Nike and Athena are both associated with victory, which has resulted in contestation over

4995-544: The Greek word νίκη ( nikē ) is of uncertain etymology, R.S.P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin . However, it has also been speculated to have derived from the Proto-Indo-European neik - meaning to attack or "start vehemently". If this is true it would make the word cognate with Ancient Greek νεῖκος (neîkos, "strife") and Lithuanian ap-ni̇̀kti ("to attack"). It is also spelled Νίκα ( Nika ) in Doric and Aeolic Greek dialects. Nike and Athena are both associated with victory, which has resulted in contestation over

5106-544: The Mithraic mysteries relate to fixed stars and planets." In the post-Cumontian period, this recognition was first revived by Stanley Insler (second congress, 1975), who pointed out that the tauroctony could be interpreted solely in terms of the Greco-Roman understanding of astronomical phenomena. Likewise, Richard L. Gordon (1976) cautioned against overlooking the importance of the cult's astronomical symbolism. Four contemporaneous articles (1976–1977) by Roger Beck stressed

5217-490: The Mysteries. This was subsequently corrected by Vermaseren and others as being of Nike. Already in 1899, Cumont had identified the tauroctony as "the imitation of the motif of the classical Greek group of Nike sacrificing a bull", but supposed that both tauroctony scenes were attributable to 2nd century BCE Pergamene artistic traditions. This notion has been characterized as one of Cumont's "least happy hypotheses". Usually

5328-573: The Sun's horse-drawn quadriga mounting upwards on the left, while Luna's oxen-driven biga descends on the right. In these, Sol's chariot is preceded by the naked youth Phosphorus, who runs ahead with a raised torch. Luna's chariot is preceded by Hesperus, with lowered torch. The two youths are reminiscent of Cautes and Cautopates. Sol, Luna, and the other five planetary gods are also sometimes represented as stars in Mithras' outspread cloak, or scattered in

5439-687: The altar of Zeus Purifier. He also mentioned the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens: "On the right of the gateway [of the Akropolis in Athens] is a temple of Nike Apteron (Wingless Nike)." In Athens Nike was often honored alongside Athena or as an attribute of Athena, where she was called Athena Nike. According to Sikes, Nike was worshipped as a facet of Athena due to her role as the city's patron goddess and namesake, her preeminence allowing her to assume some of

5550-471: The altar of Zeus Purifier. He also mentioned the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens: "On the right of the gateway [of the Akropolis in Athens] is a temple of Nike Apteron (Wingless Nike)." In Athens Nike was often honored alongside Athena or as an attribute of Athena, where she was called Athena Nike. According to Sikes, Nike was worshipped as a facet of Athena due to her role as the city's patron goddess and namesake, her preeminence allowing her to assume some of

5661-413: The background. The seven planetary gods are also fairly commonly represented by the depiction of seven altars or less commonly in anthropomorphic form, as busts or full-length. Several of the more detailed reliefs even seem to have the planetary gods placed in order of their week-day dedications, but no standard sequence is discernible. As first identified by Karl Bernhard Stark in 1879 but unexplored until

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5772-490: The battle including Ares, Hermes , Apollo , Aphrodite , and Hephaistos . She also mentions the possible repercussions of allowing Typhon to win, which includes the destruction of Olympus and the rape and enslavement Zeus's daughters Athena and Artemis . When in the morning Typhon again issued his challenge, Zeus gathered the clouds around himself for armor and answered the monster's threats. Nike, described as Victory, led Zeus into battle as Eris , Strife, led Typhon. During

5883-490: The battle including Ares, Hermes , Apollo , Aphrodite , and Hephaistos . She also mentions the possible repercussions of allowing Typhon to win, which includes the destruction of Olympus and the rape and enslavement Zeus's daughters Athena and Artemis . When in the morning Typhon again issued his challenge, Zeus gathered the clouds around himself for armor and answered the monster's threats. Nike, described as Victory, led Zeus into battle as Eris , Strife, led Typhon. During

5994-416: The bull, and in many he is looking back over his right shoulder up to Sol (statuary that shows Mithras looking at the bull are the result of Renaissance-era restorations of monuments that were missing a head). The bull is held down by Mithras' left leg, which is bent at an angle and the knee of which presses down on the bull's spine. The bull's rump and right hind leg is restrained by Mithras' right leg, which

6105-526: The cult of Athena Nike in its earlier years had its own priestess, no priestess, or if it shared a priestess with a nearby cult. The earliest substantial evidence for a priestess of Athena Nike is provided in a decree named IG i^3 35 passed in the early fifth century by the Athenian Demos . This decree proposed a plan for a new temple and priestess for Athena Nike. The decree was unusual because it broke with Athenian tradition by handing over control of

6216-463: The cult of Athena Nike in its earlier years had its own priestess, no priestess, or if it shared a priestess with a nearby cult. The earliest substantial evidence for a priestess of Athena Nike is provided in a decree named IG i^3 35 passed in the early fifth century by the Athenian Demos . This decree proposed a plan for a new temple and priestess for Athena Nike. The decree was unusual because it broke with Athenian tradition by handing over control of

6327-411: The cult relief represents some sort of "star-map" code that poses a riddle of Mithras' identity. Beck (2006) summarizes them as follows: Additionally, Stanley Insler (1978) and Bruno Jacobs (1999) identify the entire bull-killing scene with the heliacal setting of Taurus. In 2006, Roger Beck found all these approaches "lacked persuasiveness" because they were "ungrounded in proper contextual soil." There

6438-407: The cult to the state and instituting a democratic selection of the next priestess of Athena Nike by lot from all Athenian women. According to Michael Laughy, the priesthood was traditionally controlled by a genos or family clan who selected the next priestess from one of their heirs. For example, the priestess of Athena Polias was the heir of the aristocratic Eteoboutadai genos, since they controlled

6549-407: The cult to the state and instituting a democratic selection of the next priestess of Athena Nike by lot from all Athenian women. According to Michael Laughy, the priesthood was traditionally controlled by a genos or family clan who selected the next priestess from one of their heirs. For example, the priestess of Athena Polias was the heir of the aristocratic Eteoboutadai genos, since they controlled

6660-425: The decree was that it broke with Athenian tradition by handing over responsibility of the priesthood from the genos to the state. According to Laughy, ancestral practice played a key role in how Athenian cultic rituals and sacrifices were performed. Thus, a break in custom to transfer religious authority from the genos to the state was exceptional for Athens during that time as it transformed the cult of Athena Nike into

6771-425: The decree was that it broke with Athenian tradition by handing over responsibility of the priesthood from the genos to the state. According to Laughy, ancestral practice played a key role in how Athenian cultic rituals and sacrifices were performed. Thus, a break in custom to transfer religious authority from the genos to the state was exceptional for Athens during that time as it transformed the cult of Athena Nike into

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6882-487: The dismantling of the Cumontian transfer scenario in the 1970s, all the other elements of the tauroctony scene except Mithras himself have obvious astral correlations too. The constellations of Taurus (bull) and Scorpius (scorpion) are on opposite points of the zodiac, and between them lies a narrow band of the sky in which the constellations of the canine (Canis Major/Minor or Lupus), snake (Hydra, but not Serpens or Draco),

6993-402: The fifth century the goddess's alighting motion is towards the viewer as opposed to the sideways running motion of earlier statues. Additionally, Paionios's Nike has adopted a striding stance as opposed to a pinwheel-type running stance. By changing Nike's stance, Paionios has relinquished depiction of Nike's swift speed in favor of depicting her in a forward alighting motion that directly engages

7104-402: The fifth century the goddess's alighting motion is towards the viewer as opposed to the sideways running motion of earlier statues. Additionally, Paionios's Nike has adopted a striding stance as opposed to a pinwheel-type running stance. By changing Nike's stance, Paionios has relinquished depiction of Nike's swift speed in favor of depicting her in a forward alighting motion that directly engages

7215-573: The fighting Nike used her shield to protect Zeus while he fought with his thunderbolts and frigid rain. By assaulting Typhon with fire and ice, Zeus was able to defeat the monster and claim victory over the Titans. As Zeus rode off from the battlefield, Nike followed him driving her father's chariot. In the Theogony , this battle is described in a different manner. Zeus is neither hesitant nor fearful and Nike makes no appearance to encourage or aid Zeus in

7326-465: The fighting Nike used her shield to protect Zeus while he fought with his thunderbolts and frigid rain. By assaulting Typhon with fire and ice, Zeus was able to defeat the monster and claim victory over the Titans. As Zeus rode off from the battlefield, Nike followed him driving her father's chariot. In the Theogony , this battle is described in a different manner. Zeus is neither hesitant nor fearful and Nike makes no appearance to encourage or aid Zeus in

7437-589: The fighting. Nike is also depicted in literature as a goddess who judges the excellence of gods and mortals in competition. This role of assessing the greatness of skill of a god or mortal is most evident in war, where Nike is often depicted on the side of the victor granting them the victory. An example if this is in Ovid's Metamorphoses book 8 where the fate of the war between Megara and Crete hung in "...suspense; so, Victory day by day between them hovered on uncertain wings." However, Nike's role of judging excellence

7548-538: The fighting. Nike is also depicted in literature as a goddess who judges the excellence of gods and mortals in competition. This role of assessing the greatness of skill of a god or mortal is most evident in war, where Nike is often depicted on the side of the victor granting them the victory. An example if this is in Ovid's Metamorphoses book 8 where the fate of the war between Megara and Crete hung in "...suspense; so, Victory day by day between them hovered on uncertain wings." However, Nike's role of judging excellence

7659-501: The functions and epithets originally reserved for Nike alone. Thus, the two goddesses merged into one to form the Athena Nike personality. The distinct Nike personality continued to coexist alongside the Athena Nike personality and became a servant to Athena, or a "Lady of Victory" according to Sikes. The three votive processions on the parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike display this relationship between Athena and Nike. On both

7770-441: The functions and epithets originally reserved for Nike alone. Thus, the two goddesses merged into one to form the Athena Nike personality. The distinct Nike personality continued to coexist alongside the Athena Nike personality and became a servant to Athena, or a "Lady of Victory" according to Sikes. The three votive processions on the parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike display this relationship between Athena and Nike. On both

7881-400: The goddess standing almost completely straight with a slight lean forwards to indicate Nike's downward and slight forward alighting motion. Although her wings are lost, the roots of them can still be seen behind her shoulders. The straight lines of her garments imply weightiness and the pull of gravity during her gentle descent. The slight overfold of her peplos across the midsection also evokes

7992-400: The goddess standing almost completely straight with a slight lean forwards to indicate Nike's downward and slight forward alighting motion. Although her wings are lost, the roots of them can still be seen behind her shoulders. The straight lines of her garments imply weightiness and the pull of gravity during her gentle descent. The slight overfold of her peplos across the midsection also evokes

8103-407: The gods Zeus and Athena. Nike gained this honored role beside Zeus during the Titanomachy where she was one of the first gods to offer her allegiance to Zeus. At Athens, Nike became a servant to Athena as well as an attribute of her due to the prominent status Athena held in her patron city. The fusion of the two goddesses at Athens has contributed to the ambiguity surrounding Nike's origins. It

8214-407: The gods Zeus and Athena. Nike gained this honored role beside Zeus during the Titanomachy where she was one of the first gods to offer her allegiance to Zeus. At Athens, Nike became a servant to Athena as well as an attribute of her due to the prominent status Athena held in her patron city. The fusion of the two goddesses at Athens has contributed to the ambiguity surrounding Nike's origins. It

8325-541: The gods, Styx and her children were the first to declare their loyalty to Zeus and as a result Zeus granted her and her children his favor. For Styx he gave her the honor of being "...the great oath of the gods..." For her children Zeus granted them his eternal favor by allowing them "...to dwell with him for all time." As a result, Nike is often portrayed in literature in association with Zeus since she holds an honorable position by his side: "Victory... in golden Olympus, standing beside Zeus..." In Nonnos' Dionysiaca , Nike

8436-541: The gods, Styx and her children were the first to declare their loyalty to Zeus and as a result Zeus granted her and her children his favor. For Styx he gave her the honor of being "...the great oath of the gods..." For her children Zeus granted them his eternal favor by allowing them "...to dwell with him for all time." As a result, Nike is often portrayed in literature in association with Zeus since she holds an honorable position by his side: "Victory... in golden Olympus, standing beside Zeus..." In Nonnos' Dionysiaca , Nike

8547-401: The killing of the bull is a sacrificial act – as identifiable from reliefs where the bull is adorned with a dorsuale – the function and purpose of the tauroctony is uncertain. Since the tauroctony scenes are complemented by the cult meal scenes (sometimes even represented on two sides of the same monument), it may be that the killing is a salvific act; i.e. "[s]laughter and feast together effect

8658-505: The main bull-killing scene, and the compound depictions, in which the tauroctony is the central and largest element, but which is framed by panels that portray other scenes. The oldest known representative of the tauroctony scene is CIMRM 593/594 from Rome, a dedication of a certain Alcimus, slave steward/bailiff ( servus vilicus ) of T. Claudius Livianus, who is identified with T. Iulius Aquilinus Castricius Saturninus Claudius Livianus,

8769-427: The mysteries) to be merely a late, superficial and adventitious accretion, "most Mithraic scholars" have treated the correspondences between elements of the tauroctony and the constellations as coincidental or trivial. But the chance that these correlations are an accidental unintended coincidence is "improbable in the extreme". The chance that the correlations were intentional, but added incoherently and unsystematically,

8880-435: The north and south sides an array of winged Nikes are shown carrying offerings to Athena who sat seated at the west end of each stream of Nike. As a result of the merging of the two goddesses Athena Nike was worshipped as a goddess of victory in Athens, particularly military victory. The cult of Athena Nike was functioning as early as the beginning of the sixth century. However, there remains significant debate over whether

8991-435: The north and south sides an array of winged Nikes are shown carrying offerings to Athena who sat seated at the west end of each stream of Nike. As a result of the merging of the two goddesses Athena Nike was worshipped as a goddess of victory in Athens, particularly military victory. The cult of Athena Nike was functioning as early as the beginning of the sixth century. However, there remains significant debate over whether

9102-466: The origins of Nike. According to a paper by Harrison (as cited in Sikes, 1895) Nike was once a facet of the Greek goddess Athena, who was composed of Boulaia (good council), Ergane (skilled handcraft), and Nike (victory). According to this theory, Nike eventually broke off from Athena to form her own distinct personality. Baudrillart, in another paper (as cited in Sikes, 1895), shares a similar view that Nike

9213-414: The origins of Nike. According to a paper by Harrison (as cited in Sikes, 1895) Nike was once a facet of the Greek goddess Athena, who was composed of Boulaia (good council), Ergane (skilled handcraft), and Nike (victory). According to this theory, Nike eventually broke off from Athena to form her own distinct personality. Baudrillart, in another paper (as cited in Sikes, 1895), shares a similar view that Nike

9324-491: The pomegranate represents prosperity and the doffed helmet represents peace. In his Description of Greece Pausanias claims that Athena Nike's depiction as "Wingless Victory" was meant to keep the goddess in Athens. While Nike was often included in the cults of other gods, particularly Zeus and Athena, very few sanctuaries were dedicated solely to her. Pausanias noted that there was an altar solely to Nike in Olympia next to

9435-436: The pomegranate represents prosperity and the doffed helmet represents peace. In his Description of Greece Pausanias claims that Athena Nike's depiction as "Wingless Victory" was meant to keep the goddess in Athens. While Nike was often included in the cults of other gods, particularly Zeus and Athena, very few sanctuaries were dedicated solely to her. Pausanias noted that there was an altar solely to Nike in Olympia next to

9546-399: The priesthood for Athena Polias. Thus, the process of selecting a priestess in Athens was not traditionally a democratic process. This decree was also significant, according to Josine Blok , because it gave all Athenian women access to influential and prominent cultic roles in the Athenian city-state during a time when Athenian women's freedoms were fairly limited. The final unusual aspect of

9657-399: The priesthood for Athena Polias. Thus, the process of selecting a priestess in Athens was not traditionally a democratic process. This decree was also significant, according to Josine Blok , because it gave all Athenian women access to influential and prominent cultic roles in the Athenian city-state during a time when Athenian women's freedoms were fairly limited. The final unusual aspect of

9768-408: The primordial creature Gavaevodata which is represented as a bovine. Into this tale, Cumont interpolated the unwilling hand of Avestan Mithra on command of the Sun, speculating that there must have once existed a tale in which Mithra takes the role that the texts assign to Ahriman. This Cumontian characterization of Iranian Mithra has long been discarded as "not merely unsupported by Iranian texts" but

9879-416: The role of astronomy/astrology in the context of Greco-Roman religious thought. Beck thought it ironic that Cumont, "who was himself one of the most eminent scholars of ancient astrology, should have been unaware of this implication. [Cumont's] preoccupation with "les traditiones iraniennes" had blinkered him." Accordingly, since the 1970s, the zodiacal symbolism in the scene has provoked much speculation that

9990-534: The salvation of the faithful." Within the framework of the Cumontian supposition that the Mithraic mysteries was the "Roman form of Mazdaism", the traditional view held that the tauroctony represented Zoroastrianism's cosmological myth of the killing of a primordial bovine . The myth is recounted in the Bundahishn , a 9th-century AD Zoroastrian text. In the myth, the evil spirit Ahriman (not Mithras) slays

10101-414: The sense of a small wind blowing upwards from her soft descent. Additionally, both of her feet are placed side by side in a standing pose rather than a striding pose. All these details suggest Nike is appearing and making a graceful descent to the earth rather than dashing sideways into view. The statue of Nike from the Temple of Neptune at Corfu also implies a gentle appearance out of nothing rather than

10212-414: The sense of a small wind blowing upwards from her soft descent. Additionally, both of her feet are placed side by side in a standing pose rather than a striding pose. All these details suggest Nike is appearing and making a graceful descent to the earth rather than dashing sideways into view. The statue of Nike from the Temple of Neptune at Corfu also implies a gentle appearance out of nothing rather than

10323-421: The side to look at the viewer as her body swiftly rushes forward. The marble statue of Nike, possibly designed by Arkhermos of Chios and found at Delos , dates to around 550 BCE and exemplifies this style of pose. Nike's right arm is outstretched at an angle while her left arm is bent so that her hand rests upon her upper thigh. Her wings are attached to her upper back and her body runs to the side while her head

10434-421: The side to look at the viewer as her body swiftly rushes forward. The marble statue of Nike, possibly designed by Arkhermos of Chios and found at Delos , dates to around 550 BCE and exemplifies this style of pose. Nike's right arm is outstretched at an angle while her left arm is bent so that her hand rests upon her upper thigh. Her wings are attached to her upper back and her body runs to the side while her head

10545-463: The statue was originally mounted on another base or the statue was intended to fit into the hand of a larger deity. During the Classical period, statuettes of Nike were often placed in the hands of larger deities. One such example is Pheidias's statue of Zeus at Olympia. According to Pausanias's Description of Greece, the statue of Zeus "...holds Victory in ivory and gold..." in his right hand and

10656-406: The statue was originally mounted on another base or the statue was intended to fit into the hand of a larger deity. During the Classical period, statuettes of Nike were often placed in the hands of larger deities. One such example is Pheidias's statue of Zeus at Olympia. According to Pausanias's Description of Greece, the statue of Zeus "...holds Victory in ivory and gold..." in his right hand and

10767-493: The tauroctony scenes include a chalice and a lion. Seldom absent from the reliefs, and also sometimes included in free-standing tauroctony statuary, are representations of Cautes and Cautopates , the torchbearering twins that appear as miniature versions of Mithras, respectively holding a raised torch and a lowered torch. Usually, Cautes stands to the right of the scene while Cautopates on the left. In fifty tauroctony scenes, their positions are reversed, and in rare cases (such as

10878-453: The twelve zodiacal constellations and allusions to seven classical planets are common in the tauroctony reliefs and frescoes. The tauroctony reliefs (but not the statuary) almost always include busts of Sol and Luna , i.e. respectively the god of the Sun and the goddess of the Moon, which appear in respectively the left and right top corners of the scene. The more ambitious cult images include

10989-399: The twins (Gemini), raven (Corvus), cup (Crater), lion (Leo), and the star of the 'wheat ear' (Spica, Alpha Virginis) appeared in the summers of the late first century. Simultaneously, as Porphyry's description of the mysteries states, "the Moon is also known as a bull and Taurus is its 'exaltation'" Beginning with Cumont, who held the astral symbolism (and all the other Greco-Roman elements in

11100-496: The very earliest CIMRM 593), they are both on one side of the scene. The torchbearers commonly appear with crossed legs. On a number of reliefs, greenery or a tree is placed in the vicinity, sometimes on both sides of the bull, and at other times, such as at Nida (Germany) as a wreath around the relief. As Siscia in Pannonia Superior (Sisak, Croatia) a similar wreath is made of ears of wheat ( CIMRM 1475). The signs of

11211-542: The viewer. By the mid Classical period and the start of the Hellenistic period , statues of Nike begin to portray her with legs almost completely straight in an alighting pose meant to evoke an appearance out of nothing rather than a hurtling into view. This slight forward and downward motion is illustrated in the Capitoline Nike (460 BCE) from Magna Grecia. This statue was made of Thasian marble and showed

11322-418: The viewer. By the mid Classical period and the start of the Hellenistic period , statues of Nike begin to portray her with legs almost completely straight in an alighting pose meant to evoke an appearance out of nothing rather than a hurtling into view. This slight forward and downward motion is illustrated in the Capitoline Nike (460 BCE) from Magna Grecia. This statue was made of Thasian marble and showed

11433-511: The wake of the 1970s dismantling of the Cumontian transfer scenario, Cumont's trivialization of the astronomical/astrological aspects of the Mysteries as "intellectual diversions designed to amuse the neophytes " has yielded to the general recognition that the astronomical/astrological aspects were part of the fundamental premises of the cult. This recognition is not new; "[s]ince the time of Celsus (around 178), author of Alēthēs Logos , it has been known [via Origen's Contra Celsum ] that

11544-437: The wound is also sometimes depicted as ears of wheat, or as a cluster of grapes . Several cult images have the bull adorned with the Roman dorsuale , sometimes decorated with embroidery. This dorsal band or blanket placed on the back of the animal is an adoption from the then-contemporary images of public sacrifice, and identifies the bull as a sacrificial beast. From traces of pigment found on some reliefs it seems that there

11655-559: Was limited to strictly military victories. Sikes postulates that the theory that Nike first originated from Athena arose from the confusion of the two goddesses at Athens where Athena Nike and Nike existed alongside each other. In Greek mythology Nike, the personification of victory, has two possible origin stories. According to Hesiod's Theogony , " Styx , daughter of Oceanus , in union with Pallas , bore... trim-ankled Victory [Nike]..." as well as her siblings Zelus (Zeal or Aspiration), Kratos (Strength), and Bia (Power). This lineage

11766-559: Was limited to strictly military victories. Sikes postulates that the theory that Nike first originated from Athena arose from the confusion of the two goddesses at Athens where Athena Nike and Nike existed alongside each other. In Greek mythology Nike, the personification of victory, has two possible origin stories. According to Hesiod's Theogony , " Styx , daughter of Oceanus , in union with Pallas , bore... trim-ankled Victory [Nike]..." as well as her siblings Zelus (Zeal or Aspiration), Kratos (Strength), and Bia (Power). This lineage

11877-461: Was no particular coloring tradition that was followed. In the relief from Jajce ( CIMRM 1902), the bull is black, while Mithras' tunic is blue and his cloak red. In the relief from Marino and the wall fresco from Capua Vetere ( CIMRM 181), the bull is white. At Marino, Mithras' the tunic is red and the cloak blue. In a stucco group now in Frankfurt but originally from Rome ( CIMRM 430), the animal

11988-482: Was once a part of Athena and separated from her around the 5th century. However, he holds that the Athena Nike personality continued to exist alongside the distinct Nike personality. In contrast to Harrison and Baudrillart's views, E.E. Sikes believed that Nike was always a distinct personality from Athena. According to Sikes, Nike existed as an independent deity from Athena since Nike represented victory in musical, athletic, and military competitions and Athena's authority

12099-482: Was once a part of Athena and separated from her around the 5th century. However, he holds that the Athena Nike personality continued to exist alongside the distinct Nike personality. In contrast to Harrison and Baudrillart's views, E.E. Sikes believed that Nike was always a distinct personality from Athena. According to Sikes, Nike existed as an independent deity from Athena since Nike represented victory in musical, athletic, and military competitions and Athena's authority

12210-533: Was orientated to face the east. Instead of flying sideways, Paionios's Nike advances forward with feet just alighting upon the ground. At her feet an eagle is shown to fly to the viewer's left as Nike moves forward with left leg stepping down to touch the earth. Her left arm is raised and once held her himation , or outer robe, as it blew out behind her in the wind. Fragments of Nike's face, forearms, and wings are missing, however, pieces of her wings can still be seen attached to her shoulders. In this statue of Nike from

12321-533: Was orientated to face the east. Instead of flying sideways, Paionios's Nike advances forward with feet just alighting upon the ground. At her feet an eagle is shown to fly to the viewer's left as Nike moves forward with left leg stepping down to touch the earth. Her left arm is raised and once held her himation , or outer robe, as it blew out behind her in the wind. Fragments of Nike's face, forearms, and wings are missing, however, pieces of her wings can still be seen attached to her shoulders. In this statue of Nike from

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