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51-806: (Redirected from Taabwa ) Bantu language of Congo and Zambia Not to be confused with Tabwa dialect of Bemba . Taabwa Ichitaabwa Native to Zambia , Democratic Republic of Congo Native speakers (250,000 in DRC cited 1982) 32,000 in Zambia (2010 census) Language family Niger–Congo ? Atlantic–Congo Benue–Congo Bantoid Bantu Sabi Taabwa Language codes ISO 639-3 tap Glottolog taab1238 Guthrie code M.41 Taabwa (Ichitaabwa; also called "Kitabwa" and spelled "Tabwa"), or Rungu (Malungu),

102-441: A word order that is subject-verb-object . Most of the classification here is taken from that given by Schoeffer, Sheane and Cornwallis. Bemba nouns are divided into several partially-semantic classes. They are indicated by their prefixes and are generally similar but not always identical to the concord prefixes , attached to verbs they govern, adjectives qualifying them, and pronouns standing for them. By one convention, based on

153-525: A Core group in which Berta was considered divergent, and coordinating Fur–Maban as a sister clade to Chari–Nile. Songhay Saharan Kunama–Ilit Kuliak Fur Maban Moru–Mangbetu Sara–Bongo Berta Surmic – Nilotic Nubian , Nara , Taman Gumuz Koman (including Shabo) Kadugli–Krongo Bender revised his model of Nilo-Saharan again in 1996, at which point he split Koman and Gumuz into completely separate branches of Core Nilo-Saharan. Christopher Ehret came up with

204-419: A classification which expanded upon and revised that of Greenberg. He considered Fur and Maban to constitute a Fur–Maban branch, added Kadu to Nilo-Saharan, removed Kuliak from Eastern Sudanic, removed Gumuz from Koman (but left it as a sister node), and chose to posit Kunama as an independent branch of the family. By 1991 he had added more detail to the tree, dividing Chari–Nile into nested clades, including

255-440: A long 'a', 'ae' and 'ai' change to 'e', and 'ao' and 'au' change to 'o' (in other cases, a 'y' is often used to separate other combinations of vowels). The nasal 'n' changes to 'm' before 'b' or 'p', and is pronounced ŋ before 'k' or 'g'; after 'n', 'l' changes to 'd'. These rules will all be implicit in the tables given below. Like many Bantu languages, Bemba is tonal , with two tones. However, tone has limited effect on meaning as

306-404: A mostly straightforward manner, Bemba being agglutinative and not inflective , but there are still some exceptions. The subject and object prefixes for the personal pronouns are given below. These can vary slightly according to mood, and the subject prefixes change for negative verbs. Where they are different, object prefixes are given in brackets. The subject prefix is placed first, and then

357-482: A novel classification of Nilo-Saharan as a preliminary part of his then-ongoing research into the macrofamily. His evidence for the classification was not fully published until much later (see Ehret 2001 below), and so it did not attain the same level of acclaim as competing proposals, namely those of Bender and Blench. By 2000 Bender had entirely abandoned the Chari–Nile and Komuz branches. He also added Kunama back to

408-625: A spirit of brotherhood. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Nilo-Saharan languages The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of around 210 African languages spoken by somewhere around 70 million speakers, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia , north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. The languages extend through 17 nations in

459-443: A whole, however this relationship is more likely due to a close relationship between Songhay and Mande many thousands of years ago in the early days of Nilo-Saharan, so the relationship is probably more one of ancient contact than a genetic link. The extinct Meroitic language of ancient Kush has been accepted by linguists such as Rille, Dimmendaal, and Blench as Nilo-Saharan, though others argue for an Afroasiatic affiliation. It

510-515: Is 38–39 million people. However, the data spans a range from ca. 1980 to 2005, with a weighted median at ca. 1990. Given population growth rates, the figure in 2010 might be half again higher, or about 60 million. The Saharan family (which includes Kanuri , Kanembu , the Tebu languages , and Zaghawa ) was recognized by Heinrich Barth in 1853, the Nilotic languages by Karl Richard Lepsius in 1880,

561-1479: Is a Bantu language of Congo and Zambia spoken by half a million or so people. See also [ edit ] Taabwa Twa References [ edit ] ^ Taabwa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) ^ Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. New Updated Guthrie List Online Further reading [ edit ] Kalenga, Kaki A. 1992. Esquisse Grammaticale de la Langue Shila, Parler de Nkuba Bukongolo-Lac Moëro. Unpublished thesis, Université de Lubumbashi, DRC. Available Here Kavimbwa, Pierre Mutono. 2002. Elements de Phonologie et de Morphologie du Kitaabwa (M41a): Approche Structuraliste. Unpublished thesis, Université de Lubumbashi, DRC. Available Here Ntambo, Mwamba. 1984. Aspects Spatio-Temporels en Kitaabwa (M41). Unpublished thesis, Université de Lubumbashi, DRC. Available Here Rwakazina, Alphonse-Marie. 1966. Esquisse Grammaticale de la Langue Taabwa: Phonologie et Morphologie. Unpublished thesis, Université Lovanium, Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres, DRC. Tumbwe, Kasoro. 1979. Les Emprunts Francais en Taabwa. Unpublished thesis, Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Kisangani, DRC. Available Here van Acker, Auguste. 1907. Dictionnaire Kitabwa-Français et Français -Kitabwa. Annales du Musée du Congo, Ethnographie et Anthropologie, Série 5: Linguistique, 1:1. Bruxelles: Tervuren. Available Here v t e Languages of

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612-684: Is not accepted by all linguists, however. Glottolog (2013), for example, a publication of the Max Planck Institute in Germany, does not recognise the unity of the Nilo-Saharan family or even of the Eastern Sudanic branch; Georgiy Starostin (2016) likewise does not accept a relationship between the branches of Nilo-Saharan, though he leaves open the possibility that some of them may prove to be related to each other once

663-593: Is one of Zambia's seven recognized regional languages. Zambia's first president, Kenneth Kaunda , though Malawian by descent, was raised in a Bemba-speaking community, and two of the four Zambian presidents since have been Bemba-speakers. The third president, Levy Mwanawasa , was a Lenje /Lamba, Lamba people from the Copperbelt Province and Lenje from central province, Lenjes belong to the Bantu Botatwe (“three people”) ethnic grouping that comprises

714-688: Is poorly attested. There is little doubt that the constituent families of Nilo-Saharan—of which only Eastern Sudanic and Central Sudanic show much internal diversity—are valid groups. However, there have been several conflicting classifications in grouping them together. Each of the proposed higher-order groups has been rejected by other researchers: Greenberg's Chari–Nile by Bender and Blench, and Bender's Core Nilo-Saharan by Dimmendaal and Blench. What remains are eight (Dimmendaal) to twelve (Bender) constituent families of no consensus arrangement. Joseph Greenberg , in The Languages of Africa , set up

765-534: Is spoken by Twa pygmies and sometimes considered a separate language (Nurse 2003). The Twa of Bangweulu speak another dialect of Bemba. The orthographical system in common use, originally introduced by Edward Steere , is quite phonetic. Its letters, with their approximate phonetic values, are given below. It has become increasingly common to use 'c' in place of 'ch'. In common with other Bantu languages, as affixes are added, combinations of vowels may contract and consonants may change. For example, 'aa' changes to

816-454: The Bantu norms. The simple singular imperative is identical to the 'dictionary' form of the verb consisting of the stem and the suffix '-a', changing to an '-e' if an object prefix is used - there is no subject prefix. The simple plural imperative changes '-a' to '-eni'. Prefixing 'aku-' or 'uka-', adds a sense of instruction to resume or continue an action. An emphatic form can be given by using

867-7005: The Democratic Republic of the Congo Official language French National languages Kongo Kituba Lingala Swahili ( Congo Swahili ) Tshiluba Indigenous languages (by province ) Bandundu Boma Chokwe Ding Hungana Kwese Lia-Ntomba Mbala Mpuono Nzadi Pende Sakata Sengele Shinji Sonde Suku Tiene Yaka Yansi Équateur Bala Bangi Bango Budza Central Banda Furu Losengo Mbaka Mbandja Mongo Mono Ndolo Ndunga Ngbaka Minagende Ngbandi Ngbinda Ngbundu Ngombe Pagibete Sango South Banda Yangere Kasai-Occidental Binji Bushong Chokwe Lele Lwalu Wongo Kasai-Oriental Budya Dengese Luna Nkutu Salampasu Songe Tetela Katanga Bangubangu Bemba Bwile Chokwe Hemba Kaonde Kebwe Luba-Katanga Lunda Ruund Sanga Tabwa Zela Yazi Kinshasa Mfinu Maniema Hendo Zimba Nord-Kivu Amba Havu Hunde Kinyarwanda Kirundi Nande Nyanga Talinga Tembo Vanuma Yaka Orientale Alur Asoa Avokaya Bangala Bangba Barambu Beeke Bila Budu Bwa Bwela Dongo Guru Hema Kaliko Kango (Bas-Uélé District) Kango (Tshopo District) Kari Kele Lendu Lese Lika Likile Linga Loki Logo Lombo Lugbara Ma Mangbetu Mangbutu Mayogo Mba Mbo Ndaka Ngbee Ngelima Nyali Nyanga-li Nzakara Omi Pambia Poke Soko Tagbo Zande Sud-Kivu Buyu Fuliiru Havu Kabwari Kinyarwanda Kirundi Shi Tembo Sign languages French African Sign v t e Languages of Zambia Official language English Regional languages Bemba Kaonde Lozi Lunda Luvale Nyanja Tonga Tumbuka Indigenous languages Bwile Chokwe Ila Kuhane Kunda Kwangwa Lala-Bisa Lamba Lenje Luyana Mambwe-Lungu Mbamba Bay Mbowe Mbukushu Mbunda Mwanga Nkangala Nkoya Nsenga Shanjo Shona Soli Tabwa Wanda Yao Sign languages Zambian Sign Language Immigrant languages English French Punjabi Spanish German Italian Hindi Hebrew Arabic Chinese Portuguese Japanese Russian Danish Dutch v t e Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M) (by Guthrie classification ) Zone J* [J]D40 [J]D41 Konzo [J]D42 Ndandi [J]D43 Nyanga [J]D50 [J]D51 Hunde [J]D52 Haavu [J]D53 Nyabungu [J]D54 Bembe [J]D55 Buyi [J]D56 Kabwari [JD501 Nyindu [J]JD502 Yaka [J]JD531 Tembo [J]D60 [J]D61 Ruanda [J]D62 Rundi [J]D63 Fuliiro [J]D64 Subi [J]D65 Hangaza [J]D66 Ha [J]D67 Vinza [JD631 Vira [J]E10 [J]E11 Nyoro [J]E12 Tooro [J]E13 Nyankore [J]E14 Ciga [J]E15 Ganda [J]E16 Soga [J]E17 Gwere [J]E18 Nyala [JE101 Gungu JE102 Talinga-Bwisi JE103 Ruli JE121 Hema [J]E20 [J]E21 Nyambo [J]E22 Ziba [J]E23 Dzindza [J]E24 Kerebe [J]E25 Jita [JE221 Rashi JE251 Kwaya JE252 Kara JE253 Ruri [J]E30 [J]E31a Gisu [J]E31b Kisu [J]E31c Bukusu [J]E32a Hanga [J]E32b Tsotso [J]E33 Nyore [J]E34 Saamia [J]E35 Nyuli [JE341 Xaayo JE342 Marachi JE343 Songa [J]E40 [J]E41 Logooli [J]E42 Gusii [J]E43 Koria [J]E44 Zanaki [J]E45 Nata E46 Sonjo [JE401 Nguruimi JE402 Ikizu JE403 Suba / Suba-Simbiti JE404 Shashi JE405 Kabwa JE406 Singa JE407 Ware JE411 Idaxo JE412 Isuxa JE413 Tiriki JE431 Simbiti JE432 Hacha JE433 Surwa JE434 Sweta [J]F20 [J]F21 Sukuma [J]F22 Nyamwezi [J]F23 Sumbwa [J]F24 Kimbu [J]F25 Bungu Zone K K10 K11 Chokwe K12a Luimbi K12b Nyemba K13 Lucazi K14 Lwena K15 Mbunda K16 Nyengo K17 Mbwela K18 Nkangala K20 K21 Lozi K30 K31 Luyana K32 Mbowe K33 Kwangali K34 Mashi K35 Simaa K36 Sanjo K37 Kwangwa [K321 Mbume K322 Liyuwa K332 Manyo K333 Mbukushu K334 Mbogedu K351 Mulonga K352 Mwenyi K353 Koma K354 Imilangu K371 Kwandi K40 K41 Totela K42 Subiya [K402 Fwe K411 Totela of Namibia Zone L L10 L11 Pende L12 Samba & Holu L13 Kwese [L101 Sonde L20 L21 Kete L22 Binji Mbagani L23 Songe L24 Luna [L201 Budya L202 Yazi L221 Lwalwa L231 Binji L30 L31a Luba-Kasai L31b Lulua L32 Kanyoka L33 Luba-Katanga L34 Hemba L35 Sanga [L301 Kebwe L331 Zeela L40 L41 Kaonde L50 L51 Salampasu L52 Lunda L53 Ruund [L511 Luntu L60 L61 Mbwera L62 Nkoya [L601 Kolwe L602 Lushangi L603 Shasha Zone M M10 M11 Pimbwe M12 Rungwa M13 Fipa M14 Rungu M15 Mambwe [M131 Kuulwe M20 M21 Wanda M22 Mwanga M23 Nyiha M24 Malila M25 Safwa M26 Iwa M27 Tambo [M201 Lambya M202 Sukwa M30 M31 Nyakyusa [M301 Ndali M302 Penja M40 M41 Taabwa M42 Bemba [M401 Bwile M402 Aushi M50 M51 Biisa M52 Lala M53 Swaka M54 Lamba M55 Seba [M521 Ambo M522 Luano M541 Lima M542 Temba M60 M61 Lenje M62 Soli M63 Ila M64 Tonga [M611 Lukanga Twa M631 Sala M632 Lundwe M633 Kafue Twa Italics indicate extinct languages . Languages between parentheses are varieties of

918-516: The Democratic Republic of the Congo Languages of Zambia Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Language articles citing Ethnologue 18 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Language articles with old Ethnologue 18 speaker data Tabwa dialect Bemba is one of the spoken languages in Zambia, spoken by many people who live in urban areas, and

969-1037: The Pygmies Nilo-Saharan Central Sudanic Lese Asoa Niger–Congo Ubangian Baka Ganzi Gundi Gbaya Bofi Bantoid Tikar Bantu Zone A Mvumbo Zone B Ngom Tsogo Njebi West Teke Punu Lumbu Myene Kaning'i Rimba ? Zone C Aka Mongo Lia-Ntomba Bushong Zone D Bila Zone J Kirundi Kiga Zone L Luba-Katanga Hemba Songe Zone M Taabwa Bemba Lenje Tonga Unclassified Rimba v t e Languages of

1020-823: The Tonga-Lenje-Ila peoples. The Fourth President, Rupiah Bwezani Banda was a Chewa from the Eastern Province. In the years after the MMD took power in 1991, it was accused numerous times of promoting Bemba over other regional languages in the country. Although the lingua franca of the Zambian capital Lusaka is a dialect of Bantu Botatwe. Bemba has several dialects, many being varieties of Bemba spoken by other tribes which have historically fallen under Bemba influence. They include Chishinga , Lomotwa , Ngoma , Nwesi , Lala, Luunda, Mukulu, Ng’umbo, and Unga, which

1071-404: The current name Nilo-Saharan for the resulting family. Lionel Bender noted that Chari–Nile was an artifact of the order of European contact with members of the family and did not reflect an exclusive relationship between these languages, and the group has been abandoned, with its constituents becoming primary branches of Nilo-Saharan—or, equivalently, Chari–Nile and Nilo-Saharan have merged, with

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1122-578: The distribution of Nilo-Saharan reflects the waterways of the wet Sahara 12,000 years ago, and that the protolanguage had noun classifiers , which today are reflected in a diverse range of prefixes, suffixes, and number marking. Dimmendaal (2008) notes that Greenberg (1963) based his conclusion on strong evidence and that the proposal as a whole has become more convincing in the decades since. Mikkola (1999) reviewed Greenberg's evidence and found it convincing. Roger Blench notes morphological similarities in all putative branches, which leads him to believe that

1173-557: The families may reflect ancient watercourses in a green Sahara during the African humid period before the 4.2-kiloyear event , when the desert was more habitable than it is today. Within the Nilo-Saharan languages are a number of languages with at least a million speakers (most data from SIL's Ethnologue 16 (2009)). In descending order: Some other important Nilo-Saharan languages under 1 million speakers: The total for all speakers of Nilo-Saharan languages according to Ethnologue 16

1224-602: The family is likely to be valid. Koman and Gumuz are poorly known and have been difficult to evaluate until recently. Songhay is markedly divergent, in part due to massive influence from the Mande languages . Also problematic are the Kuliak languages , which are spoken by hunter-gatherers and appear to retain a non-Nilo-Saharan core; Blench believes they might have been similar to Hadza or Dahalo and shifted incompletely to Nilo-Saharan. Anbessa Tefera and Peter Unseth consider

1275-458: The family with the following branches. The Chari–Nile core are the connections that had been suggested by previous researchers. Koman (including Gumuz) Saharan Songhay Fur Maban Central Sudanic Kunama Berta Eastern Sudanic (including Kuliak , Nubian and Nilotic ) Gumuz was not recognized as distinct from neighbouring Koman; it was separated out (forming "Komuz") by Bender (1989). Lionel Bender came up with

1326-515: The interest is slowly growing. Some of these include Lutato and Shadreck Kondala, among others. Classic Bemba books include Uwauma Nafyala , Pano Calo and Imilimo ya bena Kale . Abantu bonse bafyalwa abalubuka nokulingana mu mucinshi nensambu. Balikwata amano nokutontonkanya, eico bafwile ukulacita ifintu ku banabo mu mutima wa bwananyina. Translation All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in

1377-639: The language on their left. The Guthrie classification is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them. Narrow Bantu languages by Guthrie classification zone templates Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S) Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taabwa_language&oldid=1216111256 " Categories : Sabi languages Languages of

1428-408: The last consonant is nasal , changing the 'a' to 'ine' or 'ene' accordingly. There are irregularities in several verbs. The tense prefixes are given below. They come after the subject and object prefixes, and before the verb stem, except for the recent, completed or historic past in 'na-', which appears at the very beginning. Stress is marked with an acute (´) accent. The moods correspond closely to

1479-543: The modern countries of Sudan and South Sudan , through which the Nile River flows. In his book The Languages of Africa (1963), Joseph Greenberg named the group and argued it was a genetic family. It contained all the languages that were not included in the Niger–Congo , Afroasiatic or Khoisan families. Although some linguists have referred to the phylum as "Greenberg's wastebasket ", into which he placed all

1530-494: The name Nilo-Saharan retained. When it was realized that the Kadu languages were not Niger–Congo, they were commonly assumed to therefore be Nilo-Saharan, but this remains somewhat controversial. Progress has been made since Greenberg established the plausibility of the family. Koman and Gumuz remain poorly attested and are difficult to work with, while arguments continue over the inclusion of Songhai. Blench (2010) believes that

1581-434: The necessary reconstructive work is done. According to Güldemann (2018), "the current state of research is not sufficient to prove the Nilo-Saharan hypothesis." The constituent families of Nilo-Saharan are quite diverse. One characteristic feature is a tripartite singulative–collective–plurative number system , which Blench (2010) believes is a result of a noun-classifier system in the protolanguage . The distribution of

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1632-689: The northern half of Africa: from Algeria to Benin in the west; from Libya to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the centre; and from Egypt to Tanzania in the east. As indicated by its hyphenated name, Nilo-Saharan is a family of the African interior, including the greater Nile Basin and the Central Sahara Desert. Eight of its proposed constituent divisions (excluding Kunama , Kuliak , and Songhay ) are found in

1683-626: The novels and narratives in Bemba were written between the period 1950 and 1980. Recently, very few creative works are published in Zambia mainly due to two reasons: the readership is generally poor and secondly, because of the first reason, publishers tend to hesitate to publish creative works in Bemba, especially novels of substantial length, for financial reasons due to the likely low levels of readership and thus profit. Instead, there are many short stories and novellas in Bemba literature. Despite these hiccups, such as poor readership and lack of publishing,

1734-456: The number of words that would otherwise be confused is small. Stress tends to fall on the prefix, when it exists, and can lead to subtle differences of meaning (see the verb forms below). Many of the main features of Bemba grammar are fairly typical of Bantu languages: it is agglutinative , depends mainly on prefixes , has a system of several noun classes, a large set of verbal aspects and tenses, very few actual adjectives, and, like English, has

1785-406: The object prefix. When the subject or object is a specific noun in a given class, the verbal concord prefix of this class is used, and the negative form adds the prefix 'ta-' before this. The classification given here is that presented by Schoeffer. Some of these require a modified stem, changing final 'a' to 'ile' if the preceding vowel is 'a', 'i' or 'u', and to 'ele' if it is 'e' or 'o', or, if

1836-413: The otherwise unaffiliated non- click languages of Africa, other specialists in the field have accepted it as a working hypothesis since Greenberg's classification. Linguists accept that it is a challenging proposal to demonstrate but contend that it looks more promising the more work is done. Some of the constituent groups of Nilo-Saharan are estimated to predate the African neolithic . For example,

1887-493: The plural 'makumi', which can be used as a noun with 'na' (and, with) to form all numbers up to 99: for example, makumi yatatu na pabula , 'thirty nine'. 100 is 'mwanda', with plural 'myanda'. The class-independent personal pronouns are: 'ine' (1st person sg.), 'iwe' (2nd person sg.), 'ifwe' (1st person pl.), 'imwe' (2nd person pl.). These are absolute, in the sense that they stand alone, and cannot appear as subjects or objects as they are. There are separate possessive pronouns, and

1938-400: The plural, they are arranged as follows (most alternate forms are caused by phonetic considerations): The prefixes in class 9 essentially indicate case: 'ku-' corresponds to 'to' or 'from', 'mu-' to 'in', 'into', or 'out of', and 'pa-' to 'at'. As is common in Bantu languages, adjectives follow the words they qualify, and take the adjectival concord prefixes, but there are not many of them in

1989-415: The poorly attested Shabo language to be Nilo-Saharan, though unclassified within the family due to lack of data; Dimmendaal and Blench, based on a more complete description, consider it to be a language isolate on current evidence. Proposals have sometimes been made to add Mande (usually included in Niger–Congo ), largely due to its many noteworthy similarities with Songhay rather than with Nilo-Saharan as

2040-432: The preceding vowel is a, i or u, and '-ek-' if the preceding vowel is e or o. This form is differs in meaning from the passive in that it emphasises the state resulting from an action rather than the action itself (cf. English 'the pot is broken', as opposed to 'the ball is kicked'). Generally, the indicative prefixes 'ta-' to the subject prefix except for the first person singular which changes to 'nshi' or 'shi'. Generally,

2091-420: The quality of the works that are published in Bemba is often high. Moreover, there seem to be many talented writers who would like to write in this language but could not because of the reasons that have been given above and others that are related. In terms of literary criticism, a lot of the works in Bemba have not been reviewed and critiqued. This is because there are very few literary critics in Bemba, though

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2142-486: The six branches of Central Sudanic alongside his more explicit proposal for East Sudanic. In 1950 Greenberg retained Eastern Sudanic and Central Sudanic as separate families, but accepted Westermann's conclusions of four decades earlier in 1954 when he linked them together as Macro-Sudanic (later Chari–Nile , from the Chari and Nile Watersheds). Greenberg's later contribution came in 1963, when he tied Chari–Nile to Songhai, Saharan, Maban, Fur, and Koman-Gumuz and coined

2193-577: The stem by adding an extra syllable before the final 'a'. These are given below. There are also several compound tenses, many using the copula 'kuli' and 'kuba'. These are used to introduce coordinating or subordinate clauses, similarly to their use in English. There is a sizeable amount of literature in Bemba. There are narratives, poems and plays. Some of the notable writers in Bemba include Stephen Mpashi, Chongo Kasonkomona, Chishimba, Paul Mushindo, Bwalya Chilangwa, Mwila Launshi and Kambole. A lot of

2244-436: The strictest sense. Adverbs, relative clauses, or 'descriptors', often fulfil their function instead. Descriptors are placed after the noun, with the particle '-a', and the relevant pronoun prefix between them: chintu cha nomba , 'new thing'. The numbers from 1 to 10 are: The numerals 1-5 take adjectival concord prefixes (except for class 1 singular: muntu umo, 'one person'). The numerals 6-10 are left unchanged. 'Ikumi' has

2295-399: The subject pronoun prefix (generally of class 1) and following this by the prefix '-inda-'. The subjunctive is used hypothetically, as an indirect imperative, in exhortations, and in subordinate clauses, similarly but not identically to the subjunctive of many European languages. The common feature is a change of the final '-a' of the verb to '-e'. Its forms are given below. Here V stands for

2346-468: The subjunctive adds 'i' after the pronoun prefixes and in most cases changes a final 'e' to 'a'. The infinitive occasionally uses the negative 'te'. However, the precise rules are more complex, and the forms depend more finely on tense, aspect and mood. When the negative is used with the imperfect 'le', it is often in the sense of action not yet done, and is referred to by Schoeffer as a separate 'deferred tense'. There are several other verb forms which change

2397-621: The third person pronouns depend on class. There are also demonstrative pronouns, divided both by class and into three kinds by deixis ('this one, that one, and that one over there'), and relative pronouns are formed from these. Verbs have simple forms, usually ending in '-a' (everything before the 'a' being the 'stem', 'root' or 'radical'), and are agglutinated according to person, number and class of subject and object, tense, mood, voice, aspect and whether they are affirmative or negative. Further, their stems change to indicate various other shades of meaning. The following rules can all be combined in

2448-412: The unity of Eastern Sudanic is estimated to date to at least the 5th millennium BC. Nilo-Saharan genetic unity would thus be much older still and date to the late Upper Paleolithic . The earliest written language associated with the Nilo-Saharan family is Old Nubian , one of the oldest written African languages, attested in writing from the 8th to the 15th century AD. This larger classification system

2499-461: The various constituent branches of Central Sudanic (but not the connection between them) by Friedrich Müller in 1889, and the Maban family by Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes in 1907. The first inklings of a wider family came in 1912, when Diedrich Westermann included three of the (still independent) Central Sudanic families within Nilotic in a proposal he called Niloto-Sudanic ; this expanded Nilotic

2550-443: The verb stem, and P for any pronoun prefixes. The usual phonological rules apply. The infinitive, strictly a verbal noun, has two forms. The simple form has prefix 'ku-' added to the simple form, as mentioned above, and the habitual infinitive has prefix 'kula-'. The passive is formed by placing the suffix '-w-' before the last vowel of the verb, but it is not frequently used. A 'neutral' voice can be formed by using '-ik-' instead if

2601-402: Was in turn linked to Nubian, Kunama, and possibly Berta, essentially Greenberg's Macro-Sudanic ( Chari–Nile ) proposal of 1954. In 1920 G. W. Murray fleshed out the Eastern Sudanic languages when he grouped Nilotic, Nubian, Nera , Gaam , and Kunama. Carlo Conti Rossini made similar proposals in 1926, and in 1935 Westermann added Murle . In 1940 A. N. Tucker published evidence linking five of

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