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74-635: Tacarigua was originally a Spanish encomienda , prior to the relocation of the Amerindians to Arima in 1789. Some of the first mosques were built at Tacarigua in 1850. Famous cricket player Kieron Pollard was born here. With a multisport facility in Tacarigua, the Racquet Sport Centre, which has been host to local and international tournaments in tennis , table tennis and badminton . The 2018 Pan Am Badminton Championships and

148-533: A presidente (president) of the audiencia. Likewise the governor-captain general served in this function in the various audiencias located in the capital of a captaincy general. In both cases the president had no vote in judicial matters, unless he was a trained lawyer, and only oversaw the administration of the court. The audiencias with a viceroy or captain general in charge were referred to as audiencias pretoriales ("praetorial audiencias "), or occasionally audiencias virreinales ("viceregal audiencias "), in

222-411: A composition similar to the early Mexican one. In their judicial function, an audiencia heard appeals from cases initially handled by justices of first instance, which could be, among others, guild courts, corregidores , and alcaldes ordinarios . ( See Fuero .) The audiencia also served as the court of first instance for crimes committed in the immediate jurisdiction of the city that served as

296-492: A decline of 68% to over 96%. Historian Andrés Reséndez contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly, as the conditions that native peoples were subjected to under enslavement, from forced relocation to hours of hard labour, contributed to the spread of disease. For example, according to anthropologist Jason Hickel ,

370-618: A genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths". Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding abuses in Hispaniola. The program cites the decline of the Taíno population of Hispaniola in 1492 to 1514 as an example of genocide and notes that the indigenous population declined from a population between 100,000 and 1,000,000 to only 32,000

444-457: A governor-captain general, this situation caused to appear the post of president-governor of major districts, with direct rule over a province and superior control of other provinces included inside the territorial district of the Audiencia, so that they exercised functions similar to the viceroys. Thus, another administrative division appeared: while the territories in charge of a governor were

518-457: A native chief responsible for keeping track of the labourers in his community. The encomienda system did not grant people land, but it indirectly aided in the settlers' acquisition of land. As initially defined, the encomendero and his heirs expected to hold these grants in perpetuity. After a major Crown reform in 1542, known as the New Laws , encomendero families were restricted to holding

592-517: A profound conversion after seeing the abuse of the native people. He dedicated his life to writing and lobbying to abolish the encomienda system, which he thought systematically enslaved the native people of the New World. Las Casas participated in an important debate , where he pushed for the enactment of the New Laws and an end to the encomienda system. The Laws of Burgos and the New Laws of

666-651: A third of Arawak workers died every six months from forced labour in the mines. Skepticism towards accusations of genocide linked to the encomienda and the Spanish conquest and settlement of the Americas typically involve arguments like those of Noble David Cook, wherein scholars posit that accusations of genocide are a continuation of the Spanish Black Legend . Writing about the Black Legend and

740-644: A whole. The first grantees of the encomienda system, called encomenderos , were usually conquerors who received these grants of labour by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain (Mexico) were not conquerors themselves but were sufficiently well connected that they received grants. In his study of the encomenderos of early colonial Mexico, Robert Himmerich y Valencia divides conquerors into those who were part of Hernán Cortés ' original expedition, calling them "first conquerors", and those who were members of

814-418: Is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings". Economic historian Timothy J. Yeager argued the encomienda was deadlier than conventional slavery because of an individual labourer's life being disposable in the face of simply being replaced with a labourer from the same plot of land. University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as

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888-649: Is the right to extract labour and tribute from natives who were under Spanish rule. The encomienda system was established on the island of Hispaniola by Nicolás de Ovando , the third governor of the Spanish colony, in 1502. Some women and some indigenous elites were also encomenderos . Maria Jaramillo, the daughter of Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, received income from her deceased father's encomiendas . Two of Moctezuma's daughters, Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernán Cortés. Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left

962-602: The Audiencia of Mexico , chaired by the viceroy, ended its jurisdiction face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias of Guatemala (1543–1563; 1568-), of Manila (1583–1589; 1595-), of Guadalajara (established in Compostela in 1548 and transferred in 1560 to Guadalajara ) and that of Santo Domingo (1526-). The viceroy of New Spain as governor only had jurisdiction over a more reduced governorate of New Spain, and as captain general his authority did not comprise either

1036-469: The Spanish monarch . The Crown awarded an encomienda as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the early sixteenth century, the grants were considered a monopoly on the labour of particular groups of indigenous peoples , held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the encomendero ; starting from the New Laws of 1542, the encomienda ended upon the death of the encomendero , and

1110-546: The adelantado captured the caciques involved and had most of them hanged. Later, a chieftain named Guarionex laid havoc to the countryside before an army of about 3,090 routed the Ciguana people under his leadership. Although expecting Spanish protection from warring tribes, the islanders sought to join the Spanish forces. They helped the Spaniards deal with their ignorance of the surrounding environment. As noted,

1184-494: The audiencia in writing, not in verbal commands. This created a record that could be checked later. Audiencias were styled , as a body, " vuestra merced " ("your grace", in the singular) and addressed directly as " señores ." The size and composition of an audiencia varied over time and place. For example, the first audiencia of Mexico had four oidores , one president and a fiscal , or crown attorney, meeting as only one chamber overseeing both civil and criminal cases. By

1258-743: The audiencia system was extended first in Spain proper, with the Royal Audiencia of Aragon (1528) and then to the rest of the Spanish Empire. Audiencias in cities and provinces that belong to Spain today included Seville (1566), Las Palmas (1568), Majorca (1571), Asturias (1717), and Extremadura (1790). The audiencias and viceroys of the Crown of Aragon were overseen by the Council of Aragon , which had been established in 1494. In

1332-576: The audiencia' s seat and any case involving crown officials. In criminal cases the audiencia was the court of final appeal. Only civil cases involving more than 10,000 silver pesos could be appealed to the Council of the Indies, and only then within a statute of limitation of one year. The fact that Audiencia presidents were not necessarily magistrates or lawyers, but men "clad in sword and cape", meant that they did not have any vote in court cases, and

1406-501: The audiencias pretoriales had the right to hear appeals). Audiencia officials, especially the president, were subject to two forms of review. At the end of the president's term, a juicio de residencia (literally, "judgement of the period in office") was carried out, which reviewed the president's performance on the job and collected interviews many people affected by the audiencia's performance. Unscheduled inspections, called visitas (literally, "visits"), were also carried out if

1480-477: The conquest of Peru and surrounding regions. Venezuela , settled earlier, remained under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century. By the end of the 16th century six more audiencias had been established in: In the 17th century two new audiencias were created in: The last colonial audiencias were created under

1554-399: The conquest of the Americas , Cook wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact" and instead suggests the near total decimation of the indigenous population of Hispaniola as mostly having been caused by diseases like smallpox . He argues that the Spanish unwittingly carried these diseases to

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1628-404: The encomienda bond was a right reserved to full subjects to the crown. In 1503, the crown began to formally grant encomiendas to conquistadors and officials as rewards for service to the crown. The system of encomiendas was aided by the crown's organizing the indigenous into small harbors known as reducciones , with the intent of establishing new towns and populations. Each reducción had

1702-580: The encomienda natives were given instruction in Catholicism and the Spanish language , to protect them from warring tribes or pirates ; to suppress rebellion against Spaniards, and maintain infrastructure . The natives provided tributes in the form of metals, maize , wheat, pork, and other agricultural products. With the ousting of Christopher Columbus in 1500, the Spanish Crown had him replaced with Francisco de Bobadilla . Bobadilla

1776-552: The encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the mining economy of Peru and Upper Peru . The encomienda lasted from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century. Philip II enacted a law on 11 June 1594 to establish the encomienda in the Philippines, where he made grants to the local nobles ( principalía ). They used

1850-480: The encomienda to gain ownership of large expanses of land, many of which (such as Makati ) continue to be owned by affluent families. In 1501 Isabella I of Castile declared Native Americans as subjects to the Crown, and so, as Castilians and legal equals to Spanish Castilians. This implied that enslaving them was illegal except under very specific conditions. It also allowed the establishment of encomiendas , since

1924-462: The encomienda was abolished in 1782. In the rest of Chile it was abolished in 1789, and in the whole Spanish empire in 1791. The encomienda system was generally replaced by the crown-managed repartimiento system throughout Spanish America after mid-sixteenth century. Like the encomienda , the new repartimiento did not include the attribution of land to anyone, rather only the allotment of native workers. But they were directly allotted to

1998-496: The encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband. Vassal Inca rulers appointed after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas . The encomienda was essential to the Spanish crown's sustaining its control over North, Central and South America in the first decades after the colonization. It was the first major organizational law instituted on the continent, which was affected by war, widespread epidemics caused by Eurasian diseases, and resulting turmoil. Initially,

2072-521: The 16th- and 17th-century audiencias can be found in Book II, Title XV of the Recopilación de Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias issued in 1680. The first audiencia in the Americas was established at Santo Domingo (modern Dominican Republic ) in 1511 with jurisdiction over the Caribbean islands and the adjacent mainland. It was quickly suppressed due to opposition by the Spanish settlers, but

2146-434: The 17th century it had grown to two chambers handling civil and criminal cases separately. The civil chamber had eight oidores and one fiscal . The criminal chamber had four alcaldes del crimen (the chamber's equivalent of an oidor ) and its own fiscal . In addition the audiencia had sundry other officers such as notaries, bailiffs, and the equivalent of modern public defenders . The smallest overseas audiencias had

2220-430: The 2017 & 2023 Carebaco Games were held there. 10°38′N 61°22′W  /  10.633°N 61.367°W  / 10.633; -61.367 This Trinidad and Tobago location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Encomienda The encomienda ( Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda] ) was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with

2294-513: The Americas and East Indies , the two institutions were also united, but with a different power relationship. The Crown of Castile early on introduced the audiencia into the Americas as part of its campaign to bring the area and its Spanish settlers and conquerors under royal control. With the vast conquests on the American mainland, which began in the 1520s, it became clear that the audiencia system would not be sufficient to effectively run

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2368-465: The Audiencia as institution but to its members as reputable people. The decisions of the royal agreement were established in the concerted writs ( autos accordados ), nevertheless, there were matters as dispatching the issues of government, in which the Audiencia could not interfere either with the viceroy or the president-governor. This way, the control of the Audiencias over the viceroys enabled to

2442-518: The Bourbon kings as part of their administrative reforms , which also involved setting up new viceroyalties. The new dynasty found no need for the second Audiencia of Panama and abolished it in 1751, transferring its jurisdiction to the one in Bogotá. New audiencias were established in: This meant that at the moment of Spanish American independence in the early 19th century, the overseas possessions of

2516-399: The Crown to control the functions of government of the viceroys. While the viceregal and pretorial Audiencias were chaired by men clad in sword and cape, the presidents of the subordinated Audiencias were magistrates, so that, in the juridisdiccional scope of the subordinated Audiencias, the functions of government, Treasury and war belonged to the viceroy. Therefore, in these sections of

2590-424: The Crown, who, through a local Crown official, would assign them to work for settlers for a set period of time, usually several weeks. The repartimiento was an attempt "to reduce the abuses of forced labour". As the number of natives declined and mining activities were replaced by agricultural activities in the seventeenth century, the hacienda , or large landed estates in which labourers were directly employed by

2664-406: The Crown. The encomienda system was the subject of controversy in Spain and its territories almost from its start. In 1510, an Hispaniola encomendero named Valenzuela murdered a group of Native American leaders who had agreed to meet for peace talks in full confidence. The Taíno cacique Enriquillo rebelled against the Spaniards between 1519 and 1533. In 1538, Emperor Charles V , realizing

2738-472: The Indies from 1512 onwards attempted to regulate the interactions between the settlers and natives. Both natives and Spaniards appealed to the Real Audiencias for relief under the encomienda system. Encomiendas have often been characterized by the geographical displacement of the enslaved and breakup of communities and family units, but in New Spain , the encomienda ruled the free vassals of

2812-421: The Indies failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, the New Laws were postponed in the Viceroyalty of Peru . When Blasco Núñez Vela , the first viceroy of Peru, tried to enforce the New Laws, which provided for the gradual abolition of the encomienda , many of the encomenderos were unwilling to comply with them and revolted against him. When the news of the abuse of the institution reached Spain,

2886-604: The Moors. The encomienda established a system similar to a feudal relationship, in which military protection was traded for certain tributes or specific work. It was especially prevalent among military orders that were entrusted with the protection of frontier areas. The king usually intervened directly or indirectly in the bond, by guaranteeing the fairness of the agreement and intervening militarily in case of abuse. The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from

2960-466: The New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in America, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, in 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance of traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as

3034-503: The New World. Real Audiencia A Real Audience ( Spanish pronunciation: [reˈal awˈðjenθja] ), or simply an Audience ( Catalan : Reial Audiència, Audiència Reial, or Audiència ), was an appellate court in Spain and its empire . The name of the institution literally translates as Royal Audience . The additional designation chancillería (or cancillería , Catalan: cancelleria , English: chancellery )

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3108-579: The Peninsular institution. The encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero ; native lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the Catholic monarchs as

3182-686: The Spanish Monarchy were overseen by twelve audiencias. After the loss of Santo Domingo to the French in 1795, the Audiencia of Santo Domingo was transferred to Camagüey , Cuba and renamed the Audiencia of Puerto Príncipe. In 1838 a second Cuban audiencia was established in Havana , and from 1831 to 1853 Puerto Rico had its own audiencia . Unlike their peninsular counterparts, the overseas audiencias had legislative and executive functions in addition to their judicial ones, and thus represented

3256-455: The Spanish crown which ended with the execution of those encomenderos involved. In most of the Spanish domains acquired in the 16th century the encomienda phenomenon lasted only a few decades. However, in Peru and New Spain the encomienda institution lasted much longer. In Chiloé Archipelago in southern Chile, where the encomienda had been abusive enough to unleash a revolt in 1712 ,

3330-468: The captaincies of Yucatán or the New Kingdom of León , but it comprised the military command over the governorate of Nueva Galicia , which was a territory under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Guadalajara, until in 1708 the captaincy general was attached to the governor of this province of Nueva Galicia. In the viceroyalty of Peru , the viceroy presided the Audiencia of Lima (1542-), and

3404-671: The case of the former. In the remaining audiencias, such as in Quito, where there was no viceroy or captain general, the president of the audiencia served as the main governor of the audiencia district and the region was often referred to as a "presidency," (e.g., the Presidency of Quito). The viceroy retained the right to oversee the administration of these audiencia districts, but could not interfere in judicial matters. These audiencias were referred to as audiencias subordinadas ("subordinate audiencias ", although this did not imply that

3478-606: The change of requiring the encomendado to be returned to the crown after two generations was frequently overlooked, as the colonists did not want to give up the labour or power. According to the Codice Osuna , one of many colonial-era Aztec codices (indigenous manuscripts) with native pictorials and alphabetic text in Nahuatl , there is evidence that the indigenous were well aware of the distinction between indigenous communities held by individual encomenderos and those held by

3552-422: The court was not bound to submit to their authority, deferring ultimately to the crown. Thus, the authority of the president, when he was not a magistrate, was void in judicial matter and merely signed the verdicts. The Audiencias chaired by the viceroy were called viceregal Audiencias, and the chaired ones by a governor-captain general were the pretorial Audiencias. As the pretorial Audiencias were chaired by

3626-505: The crown felt it was needed. As part of the Bourbon Reforms , further limits were placed on viceroys and captains general. The office of regente , a type of chief justice , was created which removed most of the administrative functions from the viceroy or captain general. Their role as audiencia president became honorary. A viceroy or captain general, as the president of the audiencia , was charged by law with corresponding with

3700-482: The crown through existing community hierarchies, and the natives remained in their settlements with their families. The meaning of encomienda and encomendero stems from the Spanish verb encomendar , "to entrust". The encomienda was based on the reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system traveled to America with

3774-448: The former audiencias . Audiencias shared many government duties with the viceroys and governors-captains generals of the regions they oversaw, and so they served as a check on the authority of the latter. An audiencia could issue local ordinances and served as a " privy council " to the viceroy or governor-captain general. In this function it often met weekly and was called by the term real acuerdo . An audiencia also oversaw

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3848-488: The grant for two generations. When the Crown attempted to implement the policy in Peru, shortly after the 1535 Spanish conquest, Spanish recipients rebelled against the Crown, killing the viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela . In Mexico, viceroy Antonio de Mendoza decided against implementing the reform, citing local circumstances and the potential for a similar conqueror rebellion. To the crown he said, "I obey crown authority but do not comply with this order." The encomienda system

3922-411: The hacienda owners ( hacendados ), arose because land ownership became more profitable than acquisition of forced labour. Raphael Lemkin (coiner of the term genocide ) considered Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide, including the abuses of the encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it

3996-682: The implantation of Castilian law in Spanish territories. The system was created in the Middle Ages and was pivotal to allow for the repopulation and protection of frontier land during the reconquista . This system originated in the Catholic south of Spain to extract labour and tribute from Muslims (Moors) before they were exiled in 1492 after the Moorish defeat in the Granada War . It was a method of rewarding soldiers and moneymen who defeated

4070-523: The jurisdiction of this Audiencia ended face up to the jurisdictions of the pretorial Audiencias of Panama (1538–1543; 1563–1717), of Santa Fe de Bogotá (1547-), of Santiago de Chile (in Concepción between 1565 and 1575, and in Santiago de Chile since 1605), and that of Buenos Aires (1661–1672), whose presidents were also both governors and captains general, and in addition to these Audiencias,

4144-402: The king in his role as maker of laws and dispenser of justice, as evidenced by the fact that, as chanceries ( chancillerías , modern Spanish: cancillerías ), they alone had the royal seal . Their importance in handling the affairs of state is reflected in the fact that many of the modern countries of Spanish-speaking South America and Panama have boundaries that are roughly the same as those of

4218-555: The labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. In theory, the conquerors provided the labourers with benefits, including military protection and education. The encomienda was first established in Spain following the Christian Reconquista , and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Spanish East Indies . Conquered peoples were considered vassals of

4292-530: The later Narváez expedition, calling them "conquerors". The latter were incorporated into Cortes' contingent. Himmerich designated as pobladores antiguos (old settlers) a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, men who had resided in the Caribbean region prior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire . In the New World, the Crown granted conquistadores as encomendero , which

4366-571: The littoral regions of northern South America until its abolishment in 1543. It later was reestablished with jurisdiction only over Panama proper in 1564, which functioned until 1751. In 1543 with the abolition of the first Audiencia of Panama, two audiencias were established in its place: one in Guatemala with jurisdiction over Central America and another in Lima with jurisdiction over the newly settled areas of South America, which had been gained by

4440-411: The minor provinces, the juridisdiccional scope of the Audiencias constituted the major provinces. The members ( oidores ) of the Audiencia met with the president in a committee called royal agreement ( real acuerdo ), to take measurements for the government concerning the review of bylaws, appointments of commissioners ( jueces pesquisidores ), or retention of bulls, but the advice did not correspond to

4514-484: The overseas government. Viceroys were therefore introduced, but without the judicial powers the office had enjoyed under the Aragonese Crown. In the New World, instead, the audiencias were given a consultative and quasi-legislative role in the administration of the territories. Both viceroys and audiencias were ultimately overseen by a Council of the Indies . Most of the laws dealing with the establishment of

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4588-405: The prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery. The liberation of thousands of Native Americans held in bondage throughout the Spanish empire by the new viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela , on his journey to Peru, led to his eventual murder and armed conflict between the encomenderos and

4662-407: The royal treasury, and when meeting in this capacity with the royal treasurer, it was referred to as a junta de hacienda (literally, "finance board"). The crown attorney ( fiscal ) also had the right to correspond directly with the crown, especially on treasury issues and acuerdo decisions. In turn, in the viceregal capitals of Spanish America, such as Mexico and Lima, the viceroy himself served as

4736-605: The seriousness of the Taíno revolt, changed the laws governing the treatment of people labouring in the encomiendas . Conceding to Las Casas's viewpoint, the peace treaty between the Taínos and the audiencia was eventually disrupted in four to five years. The crown also actively prosecuted abuses of the encomienda system, through the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Laws of the Indies (1542). The priest of Hispaniola and former encomendero Bartolomé de las Casas underwent

4810-535: The union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon in the Kingdom of Spain and the subsequent conquest of Granada in 1492, the audiencia was divided in two, with the Audiencia of Valladolid taking cases originating north of the Tagus River , and the Royal Audiencia of Ciudad Real (1494) taking cases from south of the river. The second audiencia was moved to Granada in 1505. Under Charles V and Philip II ,

4884-453: The viceroyalties there were no governors-captains general but Audiencias, and the presidency gave them the name, for example in Charcas and Quito . Although there were accumulated in the same person the offices of viceroy, governor, captain general and president of the Audiencia, each of them had different jurisdictional areas. The jurisdiction of the viceregal Audiencia, whose president

4958-655: The viceroyalty comprised the subordinated Audiencias of Charcas (La Plata; 1559-) and Quito (1563-). Audiencias in the Spanish possessions in Europe included the Italian domains of Sardinia (1564–1714) and Kingdom of Sicily (1569–1707). In Italy, the Castilian institution of the audiencia was united with the Aragonese institution of the viceroy. The Aragonese viceroys were literally "vice-kings," and as such, had

5032-500: Was applied to the appellate courts in early modern Spain. Each audiencia had oidores (Spanish: judges, literally, "hearers"). The first audiencia was founded in the Kingdom of Castile in 1371 at Valladolid . The Valladolid Audiencia functioned as the highest court in Castile for the next two centuries. Appeals from the Castilian audiencias could only be made to the Council of Castile after its creation in 1480. After

5106-402: Was ended legally in 1720, when the crown attempted to abolish the institution. The encomenderos were then required to pay remaining encomienda labourers for their work. The encomiendas became very corrupt and harsh. In the neighborhood of La Concepción, north of Santo Domingo, the adelantado of Santiago heard rumors of a 15,000-man army planning to stage a rebellion. Upon hearing this,

5180-405: Was placed the viceregal capital belonged to the viceroy; nevertheless, with respect to the other governorates of the viceroyalty, his function was mere oversight or general inspection over the management of political affairs. The imprecision in defining the powers of the viceroy and those of the provincial governors allowed the Crown to control their officials. In the viceroyalty of New Spain ,

5254-510: Was re-established permanently in 1526. As the Spanish conquest of the continent continued, more audiencias were founded in the new areas of settlement. The first mainland audiencia was set up in Mexico City in 1527, just six years after the fall of Tenochtitlan , which had jurisdiction over most of what is now Mexico and Central America . This audiencia was followed by the Audiencia of Panama , 1538, overseeing Central America and

5328-520: Was replaced by the repartimiento . Encomiendas devolved from their original Iberian form into a form of communal slavery . In the encomienda , the Spanish Crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a specific community but did not dictate which individuals in the community would have to provide their labour. Indigenous leaders were charged with mobilising the assessed tribute and labour. In turn, encomenderos were to ensure that

5402-401: Was succeeded by a royal governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando , who established the formal encomienda system. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labour and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted. However, Queen Isabella I of Castile forbade slavery of the native population and deemed the indigenous to be "free vassals of the crown". Various versions of the Laws of

5476-413: Was the viceroy, ended face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias inside the same viceroyalty: as the pretorial Audiencias chaired by a governor-captain general, who had administrative, political and military authority, as the subordinated Audiencias, whose president did not have this administrative, political and military authority. Therefore, as governor, the direct administration of the province where

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