Misplaced Pages

#30969

125-397: South Koreans commonly refer to their national flag as taegeuk-gi ( 태극기 ), where gi ( 기 ) means "flag" or "banner". This particular color-themed taegeuk symbol is typically associated with Korean traditions and represents balance in the universe; the red half represents positive cosmic forces, and the blue half represents the complementary or opposing, negative cosmic forces. It

250-441: A mudang who keeps the image. Musindo paintings range from being crude to more sophisticated. Traditionally they use colors associated with the five directions ( 오방색 ; obangsaek ): red, blue/green, yellow, white, and black. Painters who produce musindo are traditionally expected to adhere to standards of purity while producing these artworks, bathing beforehand and refraining from eating fish or meat. Since

375-590: A Shinto shrine during the Japanese occupation, at which it moved to Inwangsan , a mountain to the north of the city. The growing urbanisation of South Korea since the late 20th century has meant that many are now surrounded by other buildings, sometimes including other kuttang . The increasingly cramped nature of Korean urban living may have encouraged the increasing popularity of kuttang in isolated locations like mountains. Kuttang often operate as businesses. They rent out rooms for mudang to use,

500-483: A spirit medium , is sometimes used synonymously with mudang but at other times describes a distinct group of practitioners. Another term some mudang adopt for themselves is posal ( bosal ), originally a Korean term for a Buddhist bodhisattva , and which is favored more by female than male practitioners. Conversely, some mudang maintain that the term posal should be reserved for diviners who are possessed by child spirits but who do not perform

625-527: A chest. In addition to entities associated with musok specifically, shrines may also include images of Buddhist deities. Alongside representations of such beings, shrines typically have candles, incense holders, and offering bowls; there may also be toys or dolls to amuse the child gods. The mudang's altar will also often be a place to store or display their ritual paraphernalia, such as costumes. To sustain their ongoing favor, mudang often worship their deities daily. Thus, they often bow when in

750-644: A child getting into university, financial woes, business concerns, or physical ailments. Some clients turn to the mudang after being dissatisfied with the diagnosis or treatment administered by medical professionals. Although both sexes do consult mudang , most clients are female. From his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim found that most clients were women in their late fifties and early sixties, while that same decade Kendall noted that most clients in Seoul and its environs were small entrepreneurs, such as owners of small companies, shops, and restaurants. By

875-443: A compulsion to go to a shrine or sacred mountain. Alternatively, they have described encounters with spirits, sometimes while wandering in a wild environment, or otherwise through dreams, with dreams and visions sometimes revealing which deities the future mudang is expected to serve. Once the person has accepted the calling, they must find an established mudang willing to train them. They become this person's apprentice,

1000-400: A folk religion, a popular religion, and an indigenous religion . It is a non-institutionalized tradition, rather than being an organized religion akin to Buddhism or Christianity. It has no doctrine, nor any overarching hierarchy, and is orally transmitted. It displays considerable regional variation, as well as variation according to the choices of individual practitioners. Over time,

1125-510: A hereditary fashion, not all sesŭp-mu do so, while some kangsin-mu continue the role of a family member as if maintaining a hereditary tradition. Yun commented that dividing the mudang into distinct typologies "cannot explain complex reality." Certain regional terms are also used for the mudang . The sesŭp-mu are often called tanggol in Jeolla Province , and simbang on Jeju Island . The latter term

1250-455: A joint organizing committee and a united team. The negotiations were continued into another meeting, but were not successful. The IOC did not meet the demands of North Korea and only about half of the desired sporting events were offered to the North. So the focus thereafter was solely on Seoul and South Korea. The games were boycotted by North Korea and its ally Cuba . Ethiopia , Albania and

1375-472: A large assortment of offerings thus gives the impression of a financially successful ritual specialist. Deities are often believed to be present in all houses. Historical accounts often reference the presence of earthen jars ( tok , hangari , tanji ) filled with grain, or smaller baskets or pouches, as offerings to household deities and ancestors. This practice was declining in South Korea by

SECTION 10

#1732784036031

1500-518: A largely "residual" category into which all Korean religious practices that were not Buddhist , Confucian , or Christian were placed. Scholars like Griffin Dix, Kil-sŏng Ch'oe and Don Baker have conversely presented Korean shamanism as just one facet of "Korean folk religion," the latter sometimes called minsok chonggyo in Korean . Korean shamanism has varyingly been labelled a vernacular religion,

1625-438: A means of choosing specific locales for the placement of kuttang . Some are located at especially auspicious places, such as at an area below a mountain, the myŏngdang , where positive spiritual energy is thought to congregate. Kuttang sometimes move over time. The Kuksadang , which Kendall described as "Seoul's most venerable kuttang ", for instance was originally on South Mountain, before being displaced by

1750-499: A name for the religion. Alternative terms include mugyo , muijŭm , and mu . In Korea, the term misin ("superstition") is sometimes used for this religion, but is also applied to other religious and cultural practices like geomancy . While misin carries negative connotations in Korean culture, some mudang use it to describe what they do. Since the late 19th century, English language studies have referred to

1875-482: A new financial venture, such as the opening of a mall or an office building. As well as being performed for clients, the mudang will sometimes perform these rituals for their own personal reasons; in the 1990s, for instance, the prominent mudang Kim Kŭm-hwa performed a kut for Korean reunification . 1988 Summer Olympics The 1988 Summer Olympics ( Korean :  1988년 하계 올림픽 ; RR :  1988-nyeon Hagye Ollimpik ), officially

2000-618: A number of myths that discuss the origins of shamans or the shamanic religion. These include, the Princess Bari myth, the Gongsim myth, and the Chogong bon-puri myth. Origin myths are often called ponp'uri . These narratives have been extensively collected and studied by Korean scholars. During a kut ritual held for the dead, an epic ballad called the Tale of Princess Pari

2125-466: A practice perhaps originating in the late Joseon period. The kuttang will have a shrine keeper, who may be a mudang themselves. Other staff based there may include musicians called chaebi , cooks who prepare food for kut rituals, and a maid, the kongyangju , who is a trainee mudang yet to undergo their initiation rite. As well as spaces for ritual, kuttang also provide places for networking, allowing mudang to witness

2250-404: A prescribed liturgy, and can last for up to several days. A kut is sponsored for a specific purpose. A kut may be arranged due to an illness, domestic quarrel, or financial loss. It might be undertaken to propitiate the spirit of a deceased family member, or to increase prosperity and good fortune; in the 21st century, it has become increasingly common to sponsor a kut to mark

2375-605: A professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Additionally, in 1988

2500-404: A shrine in their home in which they host various gods and ancestors, sometimes set up in a cabinet. Shrines might alternatively be found outdoors, often incorporating a stone or old tree, while a mudang will often establish a temporary altar in a client's home. While each altar often has its own idiosyncratic elements, they are typically dominated by bright, primary colors, in contrast to

2625-456: A spirit realm, a practice not found in Korean traditional religion. Many scholars avoid the term "shaman" as a cross-cultural category altogether. Its application to Korean religion is controversial, with Chongho Kim deeming it "often unhelpful". The scholar Suk-Jay Yim proposed mu-ism as a more appropriate label than "Korean shamanism," while Dix thought "spirit mediumship" more suitable than "shamanism". Prior to Christianity's arrival in

SECTION 20

#1732784036031

2750-570: A sports calendar in which the main events were scheduled to be broadcast in major Western markets in television prime time. Athletes from 160 nations competed at the Seoul Games. Aruba , American Samoa , Brunei , Cook Islands , Maldives , Vanuatu , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and South Yemen made their first Olympic appearance at these Games. Guam made their first Summer Olympic appearance at these games having participated in

2875-468: A vote held on 30 September 1981, finishing ahead of Nagoya , Japan. The awarding to Seoul was internationally considered to be surprising, with Nagoya having been considered a favourite. Below was the vote count that occurred at the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress in Baden-Baden , West Germany . Seoul had previously hosted many international events, but the most noteworthy ones were

3000-519: A work detail of prisoners in ragged clothes overseen by guards with wooden bats and dogs. In his words, he knew immediately that "a very serious crime" was occurring, and in January 1987, he led a raid on the facility and found beaten and malnourished inmates. He was politically pressured at various levels to reduce the charges against the owner, managers, and guards. In the end, the owner only served 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 years in prison. The Brothers Home

3125-466: A yellow lobe or pa ( 파 ; 巴 ). The yellow portion is taken as representing humanity, in addition to the red and blue representing earth and heaven, respectively. A rendition of the tricolored taegeuk also appeared in the official logo of the 1988 Summer Olympics accompanied by the five Olympic rings. The first designated Paralympic logo, created for the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul ,

3250-588: Is mu , the latter synonymous with the Chinese word wu ( Hanja : 巫 ), also used for ritual specialists. Several modern mudang advocacy groups have adopted the term musogin , meaning "people who do mu ." While the term mudang can apply to a man or woman, specific terms for male musok specialists include paksu , or, more commonly used in the past, kyŏksa . Modern advocacy groups have also described supporters as sindo (believers, Hanja : 信徒 ) or musindo (believers in

3375-439: Is a religion from Korea . Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism , Daoism , and Confucianism . There is no central authority in control of musok , with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A polytheistic religion, musok revolves around deities and ancestral spirits. Central to

3500-531: Is also used in Korean shamanism , Confucianism , Taoism , and Buddhism . The taegeuk diagram has been existent for the majority of written Korean history . The origins of the interlocking- sinusoid design in Korea can be traced to as early as the Goguryeo or Silla period , e.g. in the decoration of a sword, dated to the 5th or 6th century, recovered from the grave of Michu of Silla , or an artifact with

3625-457: Is an economic activity, and they operate as free agents rather than members of an ordained clergy. For many practitioners, being a mudang is a full-time job on which they financially depend, although some fail to earn a living through this ritual vocation. To succeed financially, mudang must attract regular clientele, and to that end modern South Korean practitioners have advertised their services in brochures, fliers, newspapers, and on

3750-678: Is another example of the tricolored taegeuk symbol. The Government of South Korea unveiled new uniform visual identity for governmental institutions on 15 March 2016, it uses a stylized blue pa with a red arch, representing the country's history and traditions and its vision for the future. This replaced the former Hibiscus syriacus insignia used by government as well as insignia of each government institutions, due to their failure to achieve public awareness and highly costs. Korean shamanism Korean shamanism , also known as musok ( Korean :  무속 ; Hanja :  巫俗 ) or Mu-ism ( 무교 ; 巫敎 ; Mugyo ),

3875-407: Is noted in parentheses. Badminton and bowling were held as exhibition sports, which did not require IOC approval and were not part of the official Olympic schedule. Note: between May 8 and October 9, 1988,all the clocks in the country were advanced by one hour as a test of the possibility of adopting the daylight summer time in the country in the future. This advance also enabled the development of

Taegeuk - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-434: Is often a source of mistrust between clients and mudang . Concerns about money are heightened by the lack of an "institutional buffer" between the client and ritual practitioner, such as a temple or church. Most musok rituals center around altars —referred to as sinbang , harabŏjiŭibang , or pŏptang —and which serve as places for mudang to engage with supernatural beings. Mudang typically have

4125-578: Is often recited. One of the common myths in Korean Shamanism is known as the Myth of Tangun. Tangun is sometimes considered the first mudang . This myth refers to the belief that God would come from heaven. This would result in the earth and heaven being unified. God and human beings would be unified as well. Korean Shamanism believes that the goddess mother of earth is married to the heavenly God. A common belief in Korean vernacular religion

4250-482: Is possible through prayer and devotion. The dead are regarded as intrinsically dangerous to the living as their touch causes affliction, regardless of whether they mean harm or not. Those who died prematurely or who feel their life was unfulfilled, such as grandparents who never saw their grandchildren, a first wife who was replaced by a second wife, those who died by drowning, and young people who died before they could marry, are all considered especially antagonistic to

4375-488: Is that spirits of the dead wander the human world before entering the afterlife. After death, the soul must stand trial in court and pass through gates kept by the Ten Kings. At this court, the dead are judged for their conduct in life. The Ten Gates of Hell are regarded as places of punishment for the wicked, typified by grotesque and gory scenes. According to the Princess Bari narrative, Ascension from Hell to Paradise

4500-547: Is the sesŭp-mu of eastern and southern regions, whose rituals entail spirit mediumship but not possession. Elements of the musok tradition may derive from prehistory. During the Joseon period, Confucian elites suppressed the mudang with taxation and legal restrictions, deeming their rites to be improper. From the late 19th century, modernisers – many of whom were Christian – characterised musok as misin (superstition) and supported its suppression. During

4625-421: Is the core practice for most mudang , even those who have built celebrity status through their performance of staged kut . In some areas, including Jeju, clients are called tan'gol . Clients seek solutions to their practical problems, typically hoping that the mudang can ascertain the cause of misfortune they have suffered. Common reasons for doing so include recurring nightmares, concerns about

4750-482: Is the deities who decide if a person is to become a mudang and that they will torment an individual with misfortune, illness or madness to encourage them into adopting the profession. This process is termed the sinŭi kamul ("the drought caused by the gods"), sinbyŏng ("spirit possession sickness"), or mubyŏng (" mu sickness"). Mudang have for instance reported partial paralysis and hallucinations before turning to this ritual vocation, or else

4875-468: The chagŭn mudang . Apprentices are usually aged over 18, although there are examples of children becoming apprentices. The apprentice of a mudang may be called their sinttal or sinddal (spirit daughter) if female, or sinadul (spirit son) if male. The mudang will be that novice's sineomeoni . The neophyte must ultimately perform an initiation ritual to open up malmun (the "gates of speech") that will allow them to receive

5000-622: The kut rituals of the mudang . Musok is polytheistic . Supernatural beings are called kwisin , or sin . The mudang divide these beings into two main groups, the gods and the ancestral spirits, although may use the term sin for all of them. Supernatural beings are seen as volatile; if humans do well by them, they can receive good fortune, but if they offend these entities then they may suffer. Devotees of these deities believe that they can engage, converse, and bargain with them. Each mudang will have their own personal pantheon of deities, one that may differ from

5125-406: The kut rituals to feast and entertain them. The mudang 's ability to perform their rituals successfully is deemed to come from myŏnggi ("divine energy") bestowed upon them by the deities. Thus, divine favor must be gained through purification and supplication, prayer and pilgrimage. Individual mudang can be regarded as having particular specialities. For the mudang , ritual

Taegeuk - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-492: The mudang as "shamans" and their practices as "Korean shamanism", a label rendered into Korean as shyamŏnijŭm . Introduced to English from the Tungusic languages at the end of the 17th century, the term "shamanism" has never received a commonly agreed definition and has been used in at least four distinct ways. A common definition uses "shamanism" to describe traditions involving visionary flights to perform rituals in

5375-415: The mudang have nevertheless long been marginalised. Disapproval of mudang , often regarded as charlatans, remains widespread in South Korea, especially among Christians. Musok has also influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism . The anthropologist Chongho Kim noted that defining Korean shamanism was "really problematic". He characterised "Korean shamanism" as

5500-404: The mudang is called kut . These are large-scale rites, characterised by rhythmic movements, songs, oracles and prayers. They are the only rituals in traditional Korean religion believed to give supernatural entities the ability to speak directly to humans, and are meant to create welfare, promoting commitment between supernatural beings and humankind. The purpose of a kut is to get

5625-494: The mudang occurred in South Korea from the late 1970s onward, especially as practitioners were associated with the minjung pro-democracy movement and came to be regarded as a source of Korean cultural identity. Musok is primarily found in South Korea, where there are around 200,000 mudang , although practitioners are also found abroad. While Korean attitudes to religion have historically been fairly inclusive, allowing for syncretism between musok and Buddhism,

5750-603: The mudang would be brought in on rarer occasions. Korea has seen particular syncretism between musok and Buddhism; mudang often identify as Buddhists, and commonly worship Buddhist deities, while some Korean Buddhist temples venerate deities traditionally associated with musok . In contemporary South Korea, it remains possible for followers of most religions (barring Christianity) to involve themselves in musok with little censure from their fellow religionists. Meanwhile, mudang based in Europe have merged

5875-416: The mudang , and then engage in an introductory conversation. Through this, the mudang will hope to ascertain more about the client and their problems. The mudang then uses divination and trance visions to determine the source of their client's trouble; in musok , neglecting ancestors and gods is seen as the primary cause of affliction. The mudang may then try to convince their client of

6000-544: The sesŭp-mu tradition, teachings are often passed down hereditarily although in other instances a sesŭp-mu adopts a non-relative, rather than their child, as an apprentice. Not all practitioners want their children to follow them into the profession, however. When mudang do not wish a family member to continue their vocation, they may ensure that their ritual paraphernalia is burned or buried at their death; doing so severs any connection between their person deities and their surviving family. Serving private clients

6125-513: The taegeuk pattern of similar age found in the Bogam-ri tombs of Baekje at Naju , South Jeolla Province in 2008. In the compound of Gameunsa, a temple built in AD ;628 during the reign of King Jinpyeong of Silla , a stone object, perhaps the foundation of a pagoda , is carved with the taegeuk design. In Gojoseon , the ancient kingdom of Joseon, the design was used to express

6250-441: The 1980 Summer Olympics ( Moscow ) and the 1984 Summer Olympics ( Los Angeles ), which were divided into two camps by ideology, the 1988 Seoul Olympics was a competition in which the boycotts virtually disappeared, although they were not completely over. North Korea boycotted the 1988 Seoul Olympics, as did five socialist countries including Cuba , an ally of North Korea. Albania , Ethiopia , and Seychelles did not respond to

6375-661: The 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. In the following list, the number in parentheses indicates the number of athletes from each nation that competed in Seoul: ^   Note:  Brunei participated in the Opening Ceremonies and Closing Ceremonies, marking its first appearance at the Olympic Games, but its delegation consisted of only one swimming official. 8,453 athletes from 159 NOCs These are

SECTION 50

#1732784036031

6500-473: The Brothers Home facility. Many of the guards were former inmates who had been "promoted" because of loyalty to the camp's owner. Various money-making operations were conducted such as manufacturing ball-point pens and fishing hooks, as well as clothing for Daewoo. Only a few inmates were paid belatedly for this work. By accident while on a hunting trip, prosecutor Kim Yong-won heard about and visited

6625-530: The Games of the XXIV Olympiad ( 제24회 올림픽경기대회 ; Je-24-hoe Ollimpik-Gyeonggidaehoe ) and officially branded as Seoul 1988 ( 서울 1988 ), were an international multi-sport event held from 17 September to 2 October 1988 in Seoul , South Korea. 159 nations were represented at the games by a total of 8,391 athletes (6,197 men and 2,194 women). 237 events were held and 27,221 volunteers helped to prepare

6750-649: The Japanese occupation of the early 20th century , nationalistically oriented folklorists began promoting the idea that musok represented Korea's ancient religion and a manifestation of its national culture; an idea later heavily promoted by mudang themselves. In the mid-20th century, persecution of mudang continued under the Marxist government of North Korea and through the New Community Movement in South Korea. More positive appraisal of

6875-516: The Miss Universe 1980 and the 1986 Asian Games , thus demonstrating that it had the appropriate capability. Live doves were released during the opening ceremony as a symbol of world peace, but a number of the doves were burned alive or suffered major trauma by the lighting of the Olympic cauldron. As a result of protests following the incident, the last time live doves were released during

7000-745: The Seychelles did not respond to the invitations sent by the IOC . Nicaragua did not participate due to athletic and financial considerations. Madagascar had been expected to participate before withdrawing for financial reasons. In 1988, the Seoul Olympic Organizing Committee (SLOOC) produced and distributed an official song of the Seoul Games to publicize the Games to all the IOC member nations, encouraging their participation in

7125-533: The Soviet Union and East Germany , as both ceased to exist before the next Olympic Games in 1992 . The Soviet Union dominated the medal count, winning 55 gold and 132 total medals. The results that got closest to that medal haul in the years since are China 's and the United States 's 48 gold medals in 2008 and 2012 , respectively, and the United States 's 126 total medals in 2024 . Compared to

7250-458: The taegeuk and the trigrams have been used since the earliest periods of Korean history, its use had started earlier in China . The taegeuk is a Taoist icon which symbolizes cosmic balance, and represents the constant interaction between the yin and yang , also known as eum/yang ( Korean :  음양 ; Hanja :  陰陽 ). The taegeuk symbol used on the flag originated from

7375-432: The 17th and 18th centuries, Korean religion was rarely exclusivist, with many Koreans practising Daoism , Buddhism, Confucianism, and musok simultaneously. Despite shared underlying beliefs, these traditions undertook a "division of ritual and cosmological responsibility" between each other. Confucian rituals were for example primarily concerned with ancestor veneration and tended to be simpler and more regular, whereas

7500-576: The 1960s and 1970s. By the latter decades of the 20th century, cardboard boxes had become common receptacles for these household offerings. Some mudang have suggested that, because most South Koreans now live in apartments, the Sŏngju must be venerated in a way that ensures it is mobile and can be transported to a new home. Specialised buildings at which musok rituals are performed are called kuttang or kut dang ( 굿당 ) and are typically located on mountains. Kuttang are often identified on

7625-413: The 1970s, musindo have commonly been produced in commercial workshops, although a small number of traditional artists remain in South Korea. After a mudang 's death, their musindo were often ritually de-animated and then burned during the 20th century. Some musindo have been donated to museums; certain musok practitioners believe that the deity leaves the image if that occurs. On

SECTION 60

#1732784036031

7750-539: The 1988 Olympics. An Associated Press article states that homeless and alcoholic persons, "but mostly children and the disabled" were arrested and sent to these camps to prepare for the Olympics. In addition, a prosecutor had his investigation into the Brothers Home camp limited at a number of levels of government "in part out of fear of an embarrassing international incident on the eve of the Olympics." In 1975,

7875-572: The 1988 United States Olympic trials for minimum amounts of pseudoephedrine , ephedrine , and phenylpropanolamine , which were banned stimulants . Bronchodilators are also found in cold medication. Due to the rules, his case could have led to disqualification from the Seoul Olympics and suspension from competition for six months. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2 ppm , 4 ppm and 6 ppm. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed

8000-518: The 20th century retained associations with measles and chickenpox . Popular cosmological deities include Ch'ilsŏng , the spirit of the seven stars of the Big Dipper , who is regarded as a merciful Buddhist figure that cares for children. Yŏngdŏng is a goddess of the wind, popular in southern areas including Jeju. The mountain god, or mountain gods more broadly, are called sansin , or sometimes sansillyŏng , and are typically seen as

8125-544: The Chinese Confucian classic known as The Book of Changes (also known as I Ching or Yijing ), a book developed for use in divination . The four trigrams also originated from the I Ching ; each of these trigrams represent specific Confucian virtues, cosmic elements, or family roles, in addition to seasons, compass directions, etc. The 건 geon trigram (☰) represents the heaven (sky), summer, south, father, and justice. The 곤 gon trigram (☷) symbolizes

8250-458: The IOC in September 1981, in hopes that the increased international exposure brought by the Olympics would legitimize his authoritarian regime amidst increasing political pressure for democratization and less rigidity in state policies. Further, he hoped it would provide protection from increasing threats from North Korea , and showcase the economic strength that the country was experiencing to

8375-693: The IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch , who was committed to the participation of these countries. Thus, at the Assembly of National Olympic Committees in Mexico City in November 1984, the "Mexico Declaration" was adopted. The declaration offered support for participation in the 1988 Olympics by all members of the Association of National Olympic Committees. The agreement with the Soviet Union

8500-542: The Internet. Some followers of musok are unhappy with this situation, believing that the practice has degenerated under capitalism and modernisation ; they feel that modern mudang display a more materialistic and self-interested approach than their historical predecessors. Many mudang report that they never wanted to take up the profession, resisting the calling due to the social disapproval that practitioners often face. However, musok teaches that it

8625-461: The Korean peninsula, the latter in southern parts below the Han River . The kangsin-mu tradition later spread and by the late 20th century was dominant across South Korea, with its ritual costumes and paraphernalia being widely adopted. Lines between the sesŭp-mu and kangsin-mu are nevertheless blurred. Although the sesŭp-mu are typically presented as inheriting the role in

8750-399: The Olympic Games. According to The Oxford Olympics Study data is not available to establish the cost of the Seoul 1988 Summer Olympics. the cost of the stadium was 491 billion won, approximately US$ 354 million. The 1988 Summer Olympics featured 23 different sports encompassing 31 disciplines, and medals were awarded in 237 events. In the list below, the number of events in each discipline

8875-451: The Olympics was a big opportunity to bring international attention to South Korea. But before that, it was necessary to prove the country's capacity, as South Korea was seen as an exotic and risky destination for large events. The project continued to run even after President Park's assassination in 1979 . With the successful staging of Miss Universe 1980 and the 1986 Asian Games , Chun Doo-hwan , Park's successor, submitted Korea's bid to

9000-535: The Olympics. The 1988 Seoul Olympics were the second summer Olympic Games held in Asia, after Tokyo 1964 , and the first held in South Korea. As the host country, South Korea ranked fourth overall, winning 12 gold medals and 33 medals in the competition. 11,331 media (4,978 written press and 6,353 broadcasters ) showed the Games all over the world. These were the last Olympic Games of the Cold War , as well as for

9125-469: The Seoul Olympics as a form of political communication. They revealed the significance of South Korea's military government throughout the period of the Olympic bid and preparation, followed by the many advantages of the hosting the Games: rapid economic modernization, social mobilization and the legitimization of the military dictatorship. Existing camps for "vagrants" (homeless persons) were ramped up before

9250-527: The altar, they are usually considered the most important objects present. They are regarded as seats for the deities, literally manifesting the latter's presence rather than just visually depicting them, an idea similar to those found across much of Asia, as in Buddhism and Hinduism . As well as being invited to inhabit a painting, a deity may also be petitioned to depart it; they are sometimes believed to leave of their own accord, for instance if they abandon

9375-468: The ancestors to convey messages directly to the living. Certain ancestral spirits can also form part of a mudang's personal pantheon. A personal spiritual guardian is the momju (plural momjusin ). The momjusin of male mudang are usually deemed female; those of female mudang are typically male. In Korean religion, a "fundamental cosmology" has influenced various traditions, including musok . Korean shamanic narratives include

9500-461: The banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for

9625-514: The chief of which is Sŏngju, the principal house guardian. Others include T'oju taegum, who patrols the precincts of the household, Chowang the kitchen spirit, and Pyŏnso Kakssi, the protector of the toilet. Keeping these entities happy was traditionally regarded as the role of the housewife, and is achieved through offering them food and drink. These informal rituals do not require the involvement of mudang , who would only be called in for special occasions. Pollution caused by births or deaths in

9750-692: The deities are called janggunsin , and typically take human form. The pantheon of deities, which has changed over time, is termed sindang , with over 130 musok divinities having been identified. The deities can be divided into those embodying natural or cosmological forces and those who were once human, including monarchs, officials, and generals. Some derive from Daoist or Buddhist traditions and others are unique to Korean vernacular religion. They are deemed capable of manifesting in material forms, as in paintings or statues, or as inhabiting landscape locations such as trees, rocks, springs, and stone piles. The anthropologist Laurel Kendall suggested that

9875-455: The deities desire food and drink, spend money, and enjoy song and dance, and thus receive these things as offerings. Spirits of the dead are thought to yearn for the activities and pleasures they enjoyed in life; spirits of military generals are for instance believed to like dangerous games. The associations of particular deities can change over time; Hogu Pyŏlsŏng was for instance a goddess of smallpox , but after that disease's eradication in

10000-429: The early 21st century, Sarfati observed, many young people had become clients of mudang as part of a spiritual search or for counselling. Clients do not generally regard themselves as being committed exclusively to musok , and may deem themselves Buddhists or Christians, but mudang often think that their rituals will please the spirits regardless of their client's beliefs. A client will often arrive, greet

10125-410: The earth (ground), winter, north, mother, and vitality, the 감 gam trigram (☵) the moon, autumn, west, 2nd (or middle) son, and wisdom, and the 리 ri trigram (☲) the sun, spring, east, 2nd (or middle) daughter, and fruition. The four trigrams supposedly move in an endless cycle from "geon" to "ri" to "gon" to "gam" and back to "geon" in their pursuit of perfection. The white background symbolizes

10250-436: The exterior by a t'aegŭk symbol, a circular swirl of red, blue, and yellow that symbolizes the cosmos. The main ritual room is called the kut bang , and often contains a table on which offerings are placed. Mudang often rent a kuttang to perform their rituals, especially if they do not have space for such rites in their home. Practitioners often believe that deities communicate with humans through dreams as

10375-763: The family compound and cause trouble. Villages traditionally had Jangseung , timber or occasionally stone posts representing two generals that guard the settlement from harmful spirits. On Jeju, these were constructed of volcanic rock and were respectively called the Harubang (grandfather) and Halmang (grandmother). Historically, villages would often hold annual festivals to thank their tutelary deities. These would often be overseen by local men and reflect Confucian traditions, although sometimes mudang did participate. In Korean society, rapid urbanisation has radically changed how people interact with their local deities. Korean vernacular religion includes household deities,

10500-450: The festival and consolidating the harmony and friendship of the entire world citizens through the song. The song " Hand in Hand " was written by Italian composer Giorgio Moroder and American songwriter Tom Whitlock , and performed by singing group Koreana . Existing facilities modified or refurbished in preparation for the Olympic Games. New facilities constructed in preparation for

10625-500: The five cardinal points. Among the sinjang are historical figures like Ch'oeyŏng, Im Kyŏngŏp, Oh, and Chang, as well as more recent military figures; around Inchon , various mudang have venerated General Douglas MacArthur as a hero of the Korean War . Child deities are tongja . The Korean traditional cosmology also includes mischievous spirits called tokkaebi , and entities called tongt'o that can lodge in

10750-466: The five-colored Olympic Rings, as well as a mass demonstration of taekwondo . The skydiving team trained at SkyDance SkyDiving and had hoped the opening ceremony appearance would set the stage for skydiving becoming a medal event by 2000. The idea for South Korea to place a bid for the 1988 Games emerged during the last days of the Park Chung Hee administration in the late 1970s, as hosting

10875-657: The five-pa version. The three- pa version remained in place from the close of the Lillehammer Games through the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , Greece . The current Paralympic symbol has morphed the teardrop-shaped pa into more of a swoosh , but still employs three such colour swatches, one each of red, blue, and green. The logo for the Miss Asia Pacific World Beauty Pageant , which began in Seoul, South Korea in 2011,

11000-686: The former Brothers Home. Victims of the Brothers Home are seeking a government investigation into the crimes committed and accountability. In preparation for the 1988 Olympics, the International Olympic Committee worked to prevent another Olympic boycott by the Eastern Bloc as had happened at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . This was made more difficult by the lack of diplomatic relations between South Korea and communist countries. This prompted action by

11125-429: The gods and spirits or entertain them with storytelling, song, and dance. Kut may take place in a private home or in a kuttang shrine, often located on a mountain. The mudang divide into regional sub-types, the largest being the mansin or kangsin-mu , historically dominant in Korea's northern regions, whose rituals involve them being personally possessed by deities or ancestral spirits. Another type

11250-436: The homogeneity, integrity and purity of the Korean people. For thousands of years, Korean people nearly exclusively wore white clothing . This eventually led to the rise of the nickname "white-clothed people" for Koreans. Therefore, the colour white is often considered associated with the Korean people. A variant in South Korea is the tricolored taegeuk ( sam·saeg·ui tae·geuk 삼색의 태극 or sam·tae·geuk 삼태극 ), which adds

11375-583: The hope for harmony of yin and yang . It is likely due to the earliest spread of ancient Chinese culture in Gojoseon , especially during the early Zhou dynasty . Today the taegeuk is usually associated with Korean tradition and represents balance in the universe, as mentioned in the previous section (red is 양 ; yang , or positive cosmic forces, and blue is 음 ; yin , or negative cosmic forces). Among its many religious connotations ( Korean Confucianism ; Taoism in Korea ; Korean Buddhism ),

11500-426: The household are believed to result in Sŏngju leaving, meaning that he must be encouraged to return through ritual. Sŏngju may also require propitiation if expensive goods are brought into the home, as he expects a portion of the expenditure to be devoted to him. Ancestral spirits are called chosang . Tutelary ancestors are termed tangju . Ancestors who may be venerated in musok rituals are broader than

11625-478: The international community in the post-war era, the South Korean government hoped to use the Olympics as a "coming-out party". The Olympics gave a powerful impetus to the development of South Korea's relations with Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union and with China. In January 1982, South Korea's curfew that had been in place since 1945 was lifted. In utilizing media events theory, Larson and Park investigated

11750-463: The invitation sent by the IOC . Nicaragua did not participate due to athletic and financial considerations, while the expected participation of Madagascar was withdrawn for financial reasons. Nonetheless, the much larger boycotts seen in the three previous editions were avoided, resulting in the largest number of participating nations during the Cold War era. For South Korea, the 1988 Olympics

11875-521: The late 1980s there have been public lamentations of the dead involving simbang to mark those killed in the Jeju uprising of 1948. The mudang mediate between the human and supernatural worlds, doing so in an attempt to decrease human suffering and ensure a more harmonious life. Specifically, they interact with gods and ancestral spirits by divining their presence and will, performing small rituals to placate them and gain their favor, and overseeing

12000-737: The living and thus particularly dangerous. Meddlesome ghosts are thought to often enter the house on a piece of cloth, clothing, or bright object. A dead ancestor who has not been appropriately cared or has been given an unsuitable burial place is deemed likely to cause trouble for its living descendants. If a person suffers a tragic or untimely death, it is believed that their soul hovers between life and death and can cause misfortune for their family; they thus need to be dealt with through ritual. Terms for wandering spirits include jabkwi and kaeksa , and mudang are deemed best suited for dealing with them, because they can determine what they want and tell them to go away. On Jeju Island, since

12125-467: The most important spirits of the earth. Sansin is typically depicted as a man with a white beard, blue gown, and accompanying tiger. Water deities, or yong , are dragons deemed to live in rivers, springs, and the sea. The most senior dragon is the Yong-Wang (Dragon King) who rules the oceans. Spirits of military generals are sinjang , and include the obang changgun , the generals of

12250-404: The muted earth tones traditionally predominant in Korean daily life. This home shrine may include paintings of deities, called musindo , taenghwa , musokhwa , or sinhwa . These paintings are particularly important in the musok traditions of Seoul and of the northwest provinces Hwanghae and P'yŏngan ; they were traditionally not found in parts of the south. Hanging above

12375-550: The need for a particular ritual to treat their problem. If a ritual fails to produce the desired result, the client may speculate that it was because of a bad performer, errors in the ritual, the presence of a ritually polluted attendee, or a lack of sincerity on their part. If the client feels the mudang has not successfully solved their problem, they may turn to another mudang . They may be disappointed or angry given their substantial financial investment; in some rare cases clients have sued mudang . The payment of money

12500-531: The opening ceremony was in 1992 in Barcelona, at the start of the ceremony. Balloon doves were released in 1994 Winter Olympics and the 1998 Winter Olympics and paper doves were used at the Atlanta Ceremony in 1996 . These were also the last Summer Olympic Games to hold the opening ceremony during the daytime. The opening ceremony featured a skydiving team descending over the stadium and forming

12625-450: The pantheon of the mudang they trained under. This individual pantheon is the chusin , and a mudang may add new deities to it during their career. Some will be considered guardian deities, each referred to as a taesin . These deities bestow myŏnggi ("divine energy") upon the mudang , enabling the latter to have visions and intuition that allows them to perform their ritual tasks. In Korean traditional religion,

12750-420: The presence of their home shrine, and then place offerings upon it. Some offerings, such as cooked rice, fruit, and water, may be changed daily; others, such as sweets, cigarettes, and liquor, may be replaced more infrequently. Mudang maintain that they provide offerings in thanks for the work their deities have brought them. For visiting clients, who may also place offerings at a mudang's home-shrine,

12875-605: The previous president of South Korea had begun a policy of rounding up vagrants. According to government documents obtained by the Associated Press, from 1981 to 1986 the number of people held increased from 8,600 to more than 16,000. Police officers often received promotions based on the number of vagrants they had arrested, and owners of facilities received a subsidy based on the number of people held. There were multiple reports of inmates raped or beaten, and sometimes beaten to death. 4,000 of these "vagrants" were held at

13000-532: The purely patrilineal figures venerated in formal Korean ancestor veneration rites, the chesa . These broader ancestors may for instance include those from a woman's natal family, women who have married out of the family, or family members who have died without offspring. While both the musok rites and the Confucian-derived chesa entail communication with ancestors, only the former involves direct communication with these spirits, allowing

13125-517: The relationship that mudang had with these spirit-inhabited sites was akin to animism . The highest deities are often deemed remote and little interested in human affairs. The governing god in Korean tradition, referred to as Hananim, Hanallim, or Hanŭnim, is deemed to rule the heavens but is rarely worshipped. Some of the more powerful deities can make demands from humans without any obligation to reciprocate. Other deities are involved in everyday human concerns and prayed to accordingly. Many of

13250-478: The rituals of other practitioners and observe different regional styles. Shrines dedicated to significant tutelary spirits are known as tang or pugundang . Historically, these were often the foci for local cults, such as those devoted to apotheosised heroes. In parts of South Korea, as on Jeju Island, new village shrines have continued to be created into the early 21st century, with various Jeju villages having more than one shrine. The central ritual of

13375-457: The same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz,

13500-465: The shrine, deities may also be represented by sinsang , statues made of wood, plastic, clay, straw, or metal. Alternatively, deities may be represented by a white piece of paper, the kŭlbal or kŭlmun , onto which the entity's name is written in black or red ink. The deity may instead be seated in physical objects, including stones, clothing, coins, dolls, or knives; these may be concealed from view, for instance being wrapped in cloth or inside

13625-470: The supernatural beings to communicate, expressing what it is that they want and why they are angry. There is regional diversity in the styles of kut , although some mudang mix these different styles, with each kut displaying features unique to its particular circumstances. Central to musok rituals is a reciprocal transaction between humans and supernatural entities. These rituals are typically performance-focused, rather than being rooted in

13750-527: The taegeuk is also present in Korean shamanism . The taegeuk symbol is most prominently displayed in the center of South Korea's national flag , called the Taegeukgi , literally taegeuk flag (along with four of the eight trigrams used in divination). Because of the Taegeuk's association with the national flag, it is often used as a patriotic symbol, as are the colors red, blue, and black. Though

13875-402: The top ten nations that won medals at the 1988 Games.   *   Host nation (South Korea) The official mascot for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games was Hodori . It was a stylized tiger designed by Kim Hyun as an amicable Amur tiger , portraying the friendly and hospitable traditions of the Korean people . Hodori's female version was called Hosuni . The name 호돌이 Hodori

14000-502: The tradition are ritual specialists, the majority of them female, called mudang ( 무당 ; 巫堂 ) or mu ( 무 ; 巫 ). In English they have sometimes been called " shamans ", although the accuracy of this term is debated among anthropologists . The mudang serve as mediators between paying clients and the supernatural world, employing divination to determine the cause of their clients' misfortune. They also perform kut rituals, during which they offer food and drink to

14125-467: The tradition has displayed both continuity and change. One term commonly used for this tradition is musok (" mu folklore"), coined by the folklorist Yi Nŭnghwa. Although developed during the Japanese colonial period, when it was employed with derogatory connotations, the term has since become popular with the Korean population and with scholars; the Korean studies scholar Antonetta L. Bruno for instance capitalised it as Musok to serve as

14250-525: The tradition with New Age elements. Central to musok are those whom the anthropologist Kyoim Yun called "ritual specialists who mediate between their clients and the invisible" forces of the supernatural. The most common Korean term for these specialists is mudang , a label that encompasses various "folk religion practitioners" across the peninsula. Although commonly used, the term mudang carries derogatory connotations in Korean culture and thus some practitioners avoid it. An alternative term

14375-440: The ways of mu , Hanja : 巫信徒 ). Mudang are often divided into two broad types: the kangsin-mu , or "god-descended" mu , and the sesŭp-mu or "hereditary" mu . The former engage in rituals in which they describe being possessed by supernatural entities; the latter's rituals involve interaction with these entities but not possession. The former was historically more common in northern and central parts of

14500-605: The words of the spirits. This rite is called the naerim kut . It involves the neophyte performing the appropriate chants, dances, and oracles to invoke and convey inspiration from the deities. If the initiate fails to perform this correctly, with the deities failing to open their malmun , they will have to perform it again. Many mudang perform multiple naerim kut before being recognised as properly initiated ritual specialists. Those mudang who fail to learn how to deal with supernatural entities correctly are sometimes called ōngt'ōri by other practitioners. In

14625-524: The world. Seoul was awarded the bid on 30 September 1981, becoming the 16th nation in the Summer Olympics , as well as the second Asian nation (following Japan in the 1964 Summer Olympics ) and the first mainland Asian nation to host the Olympics. Influenced by the model of 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, which served as a rite of passage for the Japanese economy and re-integration of Japan in

14750-471: Was a religious facility based on the Christian faith. There were in fact inspections by both city officials and church officials. However, these were scheduled inspections in which healthier inmates were presented in carefully planned and orchestrated circumstances. There were no unannounced inspections. In the 1990s, construction workers found about 100 human bones on a mountainside outside the location of

14875-518: Was a symbolic event that elevated its international image while also contributing to national pride. Only thirty-five years after the Korean War which devastated the nation, and during a decade of social unrest in South Korea, the Olympics was successfully held and became the culmination of what was deemed the " Miracle on the Han River ". Seoul was chosen to host the Summer Games through

15000-623: Was based on the traditional pa , the spiral or sinusoid components making up the taegeuk symbol. In March 1992, the Paralympic symbol was changed to a version utilizing only three pa . This was not fully adopted until after the 1994 Winter Paralympics in Lillehammer , Norway , since the Lillehammer Paralympic Organizing Committee had by then already started a marketing program based on

15125-703: Was chosen from 2,295 suggestions sent in by the public. It is a compound of 호 ho , the Sino-Korean bound morpheme for "tiger" (appearing also in the usual word 호랑이 horangi for "tiger"), and 돌이 dori , a diminutive for "boys". In the United States, NBC became the telecast provider hereafter for the Summer Games, after a five-Olympics run by the American Broadcasting Company from 1968 to 1984. NBC's coverage

15250-497: Was first recorded in the 15th century, used for mudang on the Korean mainland, but by the early 19th century was exclusively used for practitioners on Jeju. An alternative term for the kangsin-mu is mansin , a term meaning "ten thousand spirits/gods", and which has less derogatory connotations than the label mudang . Other terms sometimes used for mudang may elsewhere be restricted to different types of Korean ritual specialist. The term yeongmae , describing

15375-510: Was reached in 1987. After the Los Angeles games, East Germany had already decided to participate again in Seoul. The IOC also decided that it would send invitations to the 1988 Games itself and did not leave this task to the organizing committee as had been done before. Despite these developments, behind the scenes, the IOC did consider relocating the Games and explored the suitability of Munich as an alternative. Another point of conflict

15500-625: Was the involvement of North Korea in hosting the Games, something that had been encouraged by Cuban president Fidel Castro , who called for North Korea to be considered joint host of the Games. As a result, on 8 and 9 January 1986 in Lausanne , Switzerland, the IOC President chaired a meeting of the North and South Korean Olympic Committees. North Korea demanded that eleven of the 23 Olympic sports be carried out on its territory, and also demanded special opening and closing ceremonies. It wanted

15625-629: Was their first sporting event to feature the new Quantel Cypher to generate the on-screen graphics. However, the network would continue to use Chyron Corporation for the rest of the year with Quantel being used again for the 1988 World Series . The Cypher would be implemented permanently starting with Super Bowl XXIII in January 1989. In 2003, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee's director of drug control administration from 1991 to 2000, released documents that showed Carl Lewis had tested positive three times at

#30969