67-677: The Province of Taguzgalpa, also called New Cartago , was created by Royal Order of February 10, 1576. The entire province stretched from east of Trujillo , or the Aguan or Roman River, as far as the San Juan River , but was believed to be only from the east of Trujillo to the Wanks or Coco River . It also included the Province of Tologalpa , which stretched from the Coco River to
134-668: A closely related language within these ethnic groups. In addition, many Miskitos have adopted figures of speech from English and Spanish largely resulting from increased instances of bilingualism. The Caribbean areas of Jamaica , Belize , San Andrés , and Providence, Colombia share linguistic commonalities with the Miskito Coast population, likely stemming from the mixture of native languages, African languages, as well as colonial languages. Christianity: Moravian and Catholicism. Old Miskito religion: Polytheism (Katidawanka, laptadawanka, etc.). Miskito people were polytheist in
201-518: A group of Miskito elders declared independence from Nicaragua under the name Community Nation of Moskitia . This declaration has not been met with any formal response from the government of Nicaragua nor has it been recognised by any other state. The independence movement is led by Hector Williams, who is described as the leader of the Miskito and uses the title Wihta Tara, or Great Judge. They cited as reasons for their renewed desire for independence
268-463: A more hierarchically organized political structure may not have existed in the early sixteenth century, and that a larger, more hierarchically organized polity emerged in the late sixteenth century, possibly in response to the European threat. In his account of Honduras of 1544, Bishop Cristóbal de Pedraza mentioned that "Tagiusgualpa" was the location of a large and allegedly gold-rich city, in which
335-529: A municipality on the northern Caribbean coast of the Honduran department of Colón , of which the city is the capital. The municipality had a population of about 30,000 (2003). The city is located on a bluff overlooking the Bay of Trujillo . Behind the city rise two prominent mountains, Mount Capiro and Mount Calentura . Three Garifuna fishing villages—Santa Fe, San Antonio, and Guadelupe—are located along
402-752: A native people in Central America . Their territory extends from Cape Camarón , Honduras , to Río Grande de Matagalpa , Nicaragua , along the Mosquito Coast , in the Western Caribbean zone . Their population was estimated in 2024 as 535,225, with 456,000 living in Nicaragua. The Miskito people speak the Miskito language and Miskito Coast Creole . Most also speak other languages, such as Spanish , English , and German . Spanish
469-418: A number of short stories that took place in "Coralio" in the fictional Central American country of "Anchuria", based on the real town of Trujillo. Most of these stories appear in his book Of Cabbages and Kings . Historically, Trujillo was known for its cattle industry, alongside Omoa . Most of the cattle raised was retained for use by Hondurans, and not exported. Miskito people The Miskitos are
536-611: A result of drought and attraction to gold and timber. Illegal purchases of indigenous lands afforded the settling farmers void land rights. Violence between settlers and Miskito, Rama, and Ulwa people have led to the burning of villages, rape of women, kidnappings and the death of at least 30. Approximately 600 indigenous people have fled to Honduras. Both sides acknowledge that the Nicaraguan government has not worked to ameliorate this conflict. The Inter-American Commission for Human Rights repeatedly called for action in order to protect
603-563: A result of their geographic isolation. In 2013, the Honduran granted five Miskito communities land titles to their traditional land, totaling about 6,500 square kilometres (1.6 million acres). 100 villages exist in this area, containing a population of approximately 22,000. The majority of Miskitos speak their native Miskito language . The Miskito language is a part of the Misumalpan language family. Some villages also speak Sumu,
670-463: A singular "people" until their population grew in the area beyond being categorized as "sparsely populated". As a result of the ethnic heterogeneity present in the Miskito people, various ethnic subgroups exist within the larger Miskito identity. A major ethnic distinction exists between the Miskitos; Mam, Tawira and Wangki. The Miskito Wangki constitute a large ethnic representation in the nation in
737-530: A small branch of Protestantism that emphasizes community unity and simple living. By 1894, the Moravian Church had become a major interest group in the Atlantic coast area during the Nicaraguan reincorporation of the area through the establishment of missions. In the 20th century, the Moravian Church furthered its institutional presence through schools and production of religious materials and services in
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#1732773148683804-536: A statute providing autonomy to the Miskito. This essentially defused Miskito resistance. In 1990 the Sandinistas were defeated in national elections. The Miskito signed an agreement with the newly appointed Minister of the Interior, Carlos Hurtado , to create "security zones," prepare the return of the national police forces to the region, and integrate 50 Miskito into the police force. Brooklyn Rivera, one of
871-417: A storm, but he was nevertheless able to defeat Olid and restore the region to Cortés. Upon assuming control, Las Casas decided to relocate the town to its present location, because the natural harbor was larger. At the same time, Triunfo de la Cruz was renamed Trujillo. His deputy, Juan López de Aguirre was charged with establishing the new town, but he sailed off, leaving another deputy, named Medina, to found
938-403: A time and was revered by neighboring tribes as well. The Okuli exists as a representative to evil spirits, called Lasas. In the 1980s, shamans and group ceremonies took place in private. The Moravian Church attempted to proselytize the Miskito beginning in 1849, after attempting to provide a religious institution for a nearby German community which later failed. The Moravian Church represents
1005-431: A type of Shamanism where the shaman (known as Sukya) was seen as a healer by the community. The Sukya discovered cures by dreaming about them, and blowing smoke on the affected area. Group traditions included ritual dancing and drinking of a beverage known as mishla. Funeral traditions included a commemorative ceremony one year after death called Sikro. Only one leading shaman, known as Supreme Sukya or Okuli, could exist at
1072-587: Is a great deal of gold on its surface and in the sands of its rivers; and it refers to the tradition that the Mexicans went to Taguzgalpa to take that metal to Moctezuma." The primary inhabitants of the region were the Pech , formerly known as Paya. Archaeological research, beginning in 1933, located evidence of social complexity in the Early Selin Period (300–600 CE). It was archaeologically connected to
1139-462: Is possible that both words share the same root. However, a study of the location information of the two places in the original sixteenth- and seventeenth- century sources shows that they are not in the same place, and are both mentioned, in different areas in the same texts. In his classic study of indigenous names in Honduras, Alberto Membreño wrote, "For a long time it was believed that Tegucigalpa
1206-611: Is the language of education and government, but some families educate their children in English, German, or Miskito. Miskito Coast Creole, an English-based creole language , came about through frequent contact with the British for trading, as they predominated along this coast from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Many Miskitos are Christians. A 1987 peace agreement afforded them land rights over traditional lands. However, despite significant political struggles throughout their history, today
1273-505: The Mosquito Coast (related to the original Spanish name). The Miskito kingdom aided Britain during the American War of Independence by attacking Spanish colonies to draw off their forces. It gained several victories alongside the British. But, at the conclusion of the peace in 1783, Britain had to cede control over the coast to Spain. The British withdrawal was completed at the end of June 1787. To compensate their Miskito supporters,
1340-541: The San Juan River . It was bordered to the north and east by the Caribbean Sea ; by the south by the Province of Costa Rica ; and by the west by the Province of Honduras and Province of Nicaragua . It appeared on the Dutch map of Montanus in 1671 with an alternate spelling of "Tiguzigalpa." It was frequently confused in nineteenth-century travel literature with Tegucigalpa , the present capital of Honduras, and it
1407-779: The United States government , which took an increasing strategic interest in the area. The United Kingdom took an interest in the affairs on the Mosquito Coast, as it had trade positions in Belize/British Honduras and Jamaica. In addition, US trading interests began to develop in the region. British governors in Belize began issuing commissions and appointments to Miskito kings and other officials, such as King Robert Charles Frederick, crowned in Belize in 1825. British officials regularly officially recognized
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#17327731486831474-546: The British re-settled 537 Zambo Africans often misnamed Miskitos, together with their 1,677 Native American slaves, from Mosquitia to the Bay settlement in British Honduras , present-day Belize . Despite their official withdrawal, Britain maintained an unofficial protectorate over the kingdom. They often intervened to protect Miskito interests against Spanish encroachments. In addition to the area's geographic isolation,
1541-435: The British, acting on their perception of colonial power dynamics at any given time. Beginning with the English arrival in the geographical area, the Miskito kingdom and political structure as a whole reflected the English political structure. The Miskito-English political dynamics would change with time but the two entities would remain operating in conjunction for approximately 250 years. Miskito kings were crowned by some of
1608-644: The Cabo Gracias a Dios area. The Miskito Wangki would go on to form strong relationships with the British. The Wangki Miskito speak the Wanki Bila dialect of Miskito. The Tawira Miskito, in contrast, have greater native ethnic representation and speak the Kabo Bila dialect of Miskito. According to Meringer, historical records reference the Tawira as "pure Indians". In order to counter their subjugation by
1675-531: The Late Cocol phase at the time the Spanish arrived. At that time and from considerably earlier periods, the region was involved in a fairly extensive inter-regional trade by sea, reaching as far as Yucatán . Early accounts by Columbus, who passed the region during his fourth voyage (not mentioning Taguzgalpa by name) suggest a number of chiefdoms along the coast. The earliest accounts of the region suggest that
1742-513: The Miskito Coast. The lack of institutional Catholic presence led to many Moravian practices shared by Catholic leaders in the area. As a result, many Miskitos view differences in religions as institutionally based rather than theologically based. Churches in the area hold sanctity when occupied by the community, and are not revered as buildings in and of themselves. Further, Miskito experience divinity through dreams and discussions of good, bad, and human spirits. Shamans known as prapit or pasa yapti are
1809-637: The Miskito Reserve) supported Nicaragua's takeover of power in the area. The American companies preferred Nicaraguan authority to the Miskito, especially as the Miskito elite was more prepared to protect the rights of small landholders than was the Nicaragua government. The Miskito who lived in the Jinotega Department , west of the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region , were much different from
1876-654: The Miskito face human rights violations over land rights disputes, as recognized by the Inter-American Commission for Human Rights. “Miskito” derives from the term Miskut uplikanan ("people of Miskut"). Miskut was a legendary Miskito patriarch or great leader. Before the arrival of Europeans in the region in the early 16th century, the area was divided into numerous small egalitarian native American groups speaking old Miskito language . The Spanish listed 30 nations in Taguzgalpa and Tologalpa , as
1943-559: The Miskito guerrilla leaders, became the director of the INDERA (Nicaraguan Institute of Development of Autonomous Regions), an illegal structure under the 1987 law on autonomy. The government suppressed the INDERA a few years later, allegedly because of conflict between the Miskito and other native groups Despite the 1987 peace agreement affording the Miskito people substantial territory, conflict over land rights remains. Increasing waves of settlers have relocated to ancestral Miskito lands as
2010-597: The Miskito in providing food and transport. In 1926, many Miskito in the Jinotega region joined Augusto Sandino and his troops. The Miskito of Jinotega had closer ties with Sandino and the Sandinista National Liberation Front , which organized agricultural cooperatives and built schools and health centers in the area. During the 1960s and the 1970s, Nicaragua began to expropriate native-held land for nationalization. During these decades,
2077-527: The Miskito live. On 4 September 2007, Category 5 Hurricane Felix with peak sustained winds of 160 mph struck the coast near Punta Gorda River , Nicaragua. Damage and death toll estimates are around 100 at this time but are likely to be higher. Towards the end of the record-breaking 2020 Atlantic hurricane season , the Miskito Coast experienced the landfall of two major hurricanes within two weeks, breaking several Atlantic and Nicaraguan records. Slow-moving Hurricane Eta landed on November 3 just south of
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2144-754: The Miskito military capacity and British support allowed the people to retain their independence when Spain controlled the Pacific side of Central America. The Miskito Coast remained independent throughout much of the period of the Federal Republic of Central America , but Nicaragua finally absorbed the territory in 1894. Once the Central American republics became independent in the early- to mid-19th century, they had less power in relation to other nations than did Spain, and struggled to protect their own territorial interests against filibusters and
2211-443: The Miskito native language. They did little to quell hostilities between the Miskito and Spanish Catholics. By the 1960s, the Moravian Church seemed to play a central role in Miskito communities for anthropologists studying the area. Catholic converts existed in the Miskito region as early as the 1930s. Because of poor resources to send properly trained parsons and pastors, Miskito Catholics practice several "innovations" specific to
2278-614: The Miskito share poems and stories, but do not have largely disseminated pieces of literature nor has anything been published. Media that appears in the area is largely in Spanish, with some programming in English and in regional languages. The Miskito have musical traditions including round dances and traditional songs, as well as theatrical pieces including the symbol of the Miskito king. Regarding decorative arts, funeral ceremonies involve wooden masks. The Miskito political structure has been profoundly shaped via its interactions with other cultures including Hispanicized Nicaragua as well as
2345-664: The Miskito to capture Maroons in the Blue Mountains , as they were effective trackers. The Zambos were one of the primary drivers of slave-based depopulation of the area. The Zambo Miskito leader and the British concluded a formal Treaty of Friendship and Alliance in 1740. The British appointed John Hodgson as Superintendent of the Shore. The British established a protectorate over the Miskito Nation, often called
2412-535: The Miskito who lived along the Caribbean coast. The Miskito in Jinotega were Catholic as a result of Spanish colonial influence, were not allied with the British, and often traded with the Spanish-speaking mestizos from the Pacific coast. During the conflict in 1927–1933 between Augusto César Sandino and the United States over the United States occupation of Nicaragua , both sides tried to enlist
2479-502: The Miskito. After Nicaragua declared independence in 1821, combined Miskito-Zambo raiders began to attack Honduran settlements. They sometimes rescued enslaved Miskito before they could transported beyond their reach. They also enslaved women from other tribes for use as sexual partners. Their society allowed polygamy . The Miskito population boomed as the men had more children with their slave women. These raids continued for many years after animosity between Britain and Spain ended at
2546-509: The Miskitos, to no governmental response. President Daniel Ortega has acknowledged that Miskito land claims are legitimate, and any land sales were not legal. The government arrested various public notaries for the authorization of illegal land sales, and created a special commission over the issue under the prosecutor general. However, the government has not addressed the violence. The public officials implicated in illegal land sales were Sandinistas, members of Ortega's own party. In April 2009
2613-635: The Mosquito Coast. The town of Awastara is a major population centre and historical site for the Miskito people. Prior to the 1859 Wyke-Cruz treaty with Britain, Miskito people inhabited the Cape of Gracias a Dios on the Caribbean coast and Honduran side of the Nicaragua-Honduras border. Despite the Wyke-Cruz treaty giving the Miskito authority over the land, it was ignored by the Honduran authorities. However, their autonomy has been preserved as
2680-688: The Mosquito Coast. The treaty provided for a Miskito Reserve, a self-governing entity that enjoyed semi-sovereign rights. Nicaraguan forces occupied the area in 1894 and took over the state. The British restored the Miskito Reserve in July, but Nicaraguan forces reoccupied in August 1894 and ended its independence. Various major American fruit companies (such as the United Fruit Company , which had begun large-scale production of bananas in
2747-748: The Pre-monarchic era. However, there are no records of human sacrifices like the Mayan or Incas in America. Their gods were Lapta (god of the sun), Kati (god of the moon), Slilma (god of the stars), Alwani (god of thunder), Imyula (god of lightning), Dusdawanka (god of trees and plants), Lidawanka (god of ocean, lakes and rivers), Rayakadawanka (god of living creatures), Sinslakadawanka (god of wisdom), Disangdawanka (god of fertility) Rakidawan (god of healing), Lasadawanka (god of dead souls) and Pruradawanka (god of death). Prior to contact, Miskito people practiced
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2814-484: The Spanish understood their geography. Karl Offen's analysis of this historic data suggests there were about a half dozen entities, groups who were distinct by their language dialects, who were situated in the river basins. Much of the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Honduras remained free from Spanish authority during the 16th century. The region became a haven for Dutch, English and Welsh privateers (for example Henry Morgan , Daniel Montbars and William Dampier ) during
2881-770: The Zambo Miskito, the Tawira Miskito would seek out Spanish allies in the eighteenth century. Prior to European contact, Miskitos were scattered along the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, inhabiting interior mountainous areas with numerous rivers and forests. The central point of Miskito territory is known as the Coco River or Wangks River, which also serves as a border between Nicaragua and Honduras. Today, around 150,000 Miskito people live in Nicaragua. They are distributed among over 300 communities in 23 territories throughout Nicaragua’s Caribbean Lowlands and
2948-521: The beach. Trujillo has received plenty of attention as the potential site of a proposed Honduran charter city project, according to an idea originally advocated by American economist Paul Romer . Often referred to as a Hong Kong in Honduras , and advocated by among others the Trujillo-born Honduran president Porfirio Lobo Sosa , the project has also been met with skepticism and controversy, especially due to its supposed disregard for
3015-424: The bluff overlooking the bay, was built by the Spanish around 1550. Nevertheless, it was inadequate to really defend Trujillo from pirates—the largest gathering of pirates in history took place in the vicinity in 1683—or rival colonial powers: the Dutch, French, and English. The town was destroyed several times between 1633 and 1797, and during the eighteenth century, the Spanish all but abandoned Trujillo because it
3082-570: The counter-revolutionary leaders, took refuge in Honduras along with 3000 Miskito. Meanwhile, the Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of the Contras in the Coco River zone. In 1983, the government proclaimed a state of emergency in the Río Coco zone, which was maintained until 1988. A 1986 documentary called Nicaragua Was Our Home documented the persecution of the Miskito at
3149-499: The early 17th century. Some African people arrived at the Mosquito Coast from wrecked slave ships in the mid-17th century. These people, along with escaped slaves from the Providence Island colony , settled around Cape Gracias a Dios and intermarried with the indigenous people. The Spanish referred to these mixed-race descendants as "Mosquito Zambo" ( Mosquito was their transliteration of Miskito). Those living in
3216-432: The hands of the Nicaraguan government. The film features interviews with Miskito Indian people and some non-Miskito clergy who lived among them; they recounted actions of the government against them, including bombing of villages, shootings, and forced removal of people from their homes. The film was shown on some PBS stations and at the 1986 Sundance Film Festival . In September 1987, the Nicaraguan legislature passed
3283-524: The inhabitants ate on plates of gold. This became the root of the legend of the " White City " (La Ciudad Blanca), a lost city in the jungle. Subsequent references to the province, however, suggest a semi-nomadic population with a fairly egalitarian social organization, and not a unified polity. Taguzgalpa successfully resisted several attempts by the Spanish to conquer it in the sixteenth century. Plans and royal permission to conquer and settle Taguzgalpa were issued in 1545, 1562, 1576, 1577 and 1594, though none
3350-523: The intention to go across Honduras to Nicaragua. The Honduran army and local volunteers presented a firm defense and with intervention of the Royal Navy, was captured and executed in Trujillo by orders of President Jose Santos Guardiola. His tomb is a local tourist attraction. American author O. Henry (William Sydney Porter) spent about a year living in Honduras, primarily in Trujillo. He later wrote
3417-533: The international level. For a long time, the Miskito considered themselves superior to other indigenous tribes of the area, whom they referred to as "wild". The Miskito commonly adopted European dress and English names. From the middle of the nineteenth century, British interest in the region began to wane. At the Treaty of Managua in 1860, the United Kingdom allowed Nicaragua to have uncontested claim over
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#17327731486833484-561: The local Garifuna culture. Christopher Columbus landed in Trujillo on August 14, 1502, during his fourth and final voyage to the Americas. Columbus named the place "Punta de Caxinas". It was the first time he touched the Central American mainland. He noticed that the water in this part of the Caribbean was very deep and therefore called the area Golfo de Honduras , i.e., The Gulf of the Depths ( see : Bay of Honduras ). The history of
3551-608: The mainstream of Nicaraguan national politics recognized the Miskito only when asking them to vote for the Nicaraguan National Liberal Party . In the 1980s, the Sandinista government extended their influence over the region via its Comités de Defensa Sandinista . In response, several Miskito groups formed counter-revolutionary squads, who carried on terrorist attacks against the revolutionary government. On 25 February 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of
3618-573: The modern town begins in 1524, shortly after the conquest of the Aztec Empire in an expedition led by Hernán Cortés . Cortés sent Cristóbal de Olid to found a Spanish outpost in the region, and he established a town named Triunfo de la Cruz in the vicinity. When Olid began using the town as his base for establishing his own realm in Central America, Cortés sent Francisco de las Casas to remove him. Las Casas lost most of his fleet in
3685-654: The only individuals who physically experience divinity. Thus, Miskito Catholicism departs significantly from traditional Spaniard Catholicism as practiced by the majority of Nicaragua as it contains dimensions of a spiritual realm of divinity which humans can sometimes access. The Miskito share folktales called kisi for entertainment. Kisi often include tales of a trickster rabbit named Tibang or Bangbang as well as kings, overall serving themes of authority and human nature and general. Some stories include myths of Duhindu, creatures similar to gnomes that sometimes kidnap children. According to researchers Ken Decker and Andy Keener,
3752-527: The people were all equal. Their superior leaders were named by the English as the king, a governor , a general and, by the 1750s, an admiral . Historical information on kings is often obscure as many of the kings were semi-mythical. These "kings" were not recognized by the Native American Tawira Miskito. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Miskitos began a series of raids attacking Spanish-held territories and
3819-455: The region's major city Bilwi , and after one day turned west-northwest towards Honduras and then north back into the Caribbean . Hurricane Iota landed on November 16 only 25 km south of Eta's landing, and continued west through northern Nicaragua in the direction of El Salvador . Both hurricanes were strong Category 4s upon landfall. Historically, the Miskito were not recognized as
3886-494: The serious economic problems damaging their traditional fishing industry and the recent election of Daniel Ortega as president of Nicaragua. Many of them had fought as Contras against him during the Nicaraguan Civil War and still opposed him. Thus, many Miskito who supported the independence movement were those who had suffered greatly economically. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch heavily damaged coastal regions where
3953-429: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. While they achieved some success, and at times used armed force, only a relatively small number of people were affected. The coastal regions of Taguzgalpa were lost to Spanish settlers at Trujillo, and then in the seventeenth century to raiding Miskito from today's Nicaragua. Trujillo, Honduras Trujillo is a city, with a population of 22,750 (2023 calculation), and
4020-516: The southern (Nicaraguan) region were less racially mixed. Modern scholars have classified them as Tawira Miskito . Rivalries between these two groups and competition for territory often led to wars, which were divisive in the 18th century. English privateers working through the Providence Island Company made informal alliances with the Miskito. These English began to crown Miskito leaders as kings (or chiefs ); their territory
4087-580: The still independent indigenous groups in the area. Miskito raiders reached as far north as the Yucatán , and as far south as Costa Rica . Many of their captives were sold into slavery to European slave traders (even as the Zambo were originally slaves themselves), and many of them ended up working on Jamaican sugar plantations . In addition, from 1720 onwards, the Jamaican colonial authorities commissioned
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#17327731486834154-451: The town. In the coming years Trujillo became more important as a shipment point for gold and silver mined in the interior of the country. Because of its sparse population, the city also became a frequent target of pirates . Under Spanish rule Trujillo became the capital of Honduras , but because of its vulnerability the capital was changed to the inland town of Comayagua . The fortress, Fortaleza de Santa Bárbara (El Castillo), which sits on
4221-710: The various Miskito offices; it worked to protect Miskito interests against the Central American republics and against the United States. The latter contested British influence as per the Monroe Doctrine . The United States involvement in war with Mexico prevented it from enforcing the doctrine. As Britain gradually became less interested in its commissioning of Miskito nobility, the Miskito effectively began to operate as an independent state. Due to British economic interest in Central America (particularly British Honduras , now Belize ), they regularly traded with
4288-420: Was a corruption of Taguzgalpa and that it meant 'mountain of silver.' Tegucigalpa did not form a part of Taguzgalpa, and when this province was conquered, Tegucigalpa already existed. Don Pedro de Alvarado wrote Teguycegalpa in the repartimiento of 1536." Membreño gives the etymology of Taguzgalpa as " tlalli , 'earth', cuztic , 'yellow', calli , 'house', and pan , 'in'. This province is so called because there
4355-529: Was called the Miskito Kingdom (the English adopted the Spanish term for the indigenous people). A 1699 written account of the kingdom described it as spread out in various communities along the coast but not including all the territory. It probably did not include the settlements of English traders. The king did not have total power. The 1699 description noted that the kings and governors had no power except in war time, even in matters of justice. Otherwise
4422-441: Was deemed indefensible. When Honduras obtained its independence from Spain in 1821, Trujillo lost its status of capital city permanently first to Comayagua , which lost it to Tegucigalpa in 1880. From this same period onwards Trujillo began to prosper again. In 1860, the mercenary William Walker , who was expelled in from Nicaragua in 1857, led an expedition intended to regain control of that country. He captured Trujillo with
4489-501: Was successful. As a result of their failure to conquer the region, and the increasing competition with English traders, privateers and other interlopers in the region, Spain attempted, quite unsuccessfully, to convert the people in an effort to win their loyalty. In 1604 Franciscans began their attempt to "reduce" the area, including resettlement of people into larger missionary-supervised villages. These efforts, reinforced by those of other missionary orders, continued sporadically throughout
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