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116-571: Takkanot were enacted even in the time of the Second Temple , those of unknown origin being ascribed to earlier leaders, and they have been promulgated at all subsequent periods of Jewish history. Classical Jewish law granted rabbinic sages wide legislative powers. There are two powerful legal tools within the halachic system: However, the general term "takkanah" is used to refer to either gezeirot or takkanot. Takkanot, in general, do not affect or restrict observance of Torah mitzvot. However,

232-688: A Roman triumph , with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the temple menorah . According to an inscription on the Colosseum , Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79–possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple. The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees . The Temple was on

348-543: A corporate psychopath is in charge. This will not only affect the company and its outcome but the employees who work under a corporate psychopath. The way a corporate psychopath can rise in a company is by their manipulation, scheming, and bullying. They do this in a way that can hide their true character and intentions within a company. Fundamentally, finance is a social science discipline. The discipline borders behavioral economics , sociology , economics , accounting and management . It concerns technical issues such as

464-411: A "soft" approach that regards employees as a source of creative energy and participants in workplace decision making, a "hard" version explicitly focused on control and Theory Z that emphasizes philosophy, culture and consensus. None ensure ethical behavior. Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce. Marketing ethics came of age only as late as

580-585: A belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple in Jerusalem. In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 cm × 90 cm (24 in × 35 in) and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription . The stone inscription outlined

696-526: A business to be ethical and that violating that expectation must be counterproductive for the business. Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors , its fiduciary responsibility to its shareholders . Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take-overs and industrial espionage . Related issues include corporate governance ; corporate social entrepreneurship ; political contributions ; legal issues such as

812-527: A changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677. Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business , of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. Business purpose expresses the company's reason for existing. Modern discussion on the purpose of business has been freshened by views from thinkers such as Richard R. Ellesworth, Peter Drucker , and Nikos Mourkogiannis : Earlier views such as Milton Friedman's held that

928-402: A company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical. It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion. Each employer should know the distinction between what is unethical and what is illegal. If an action is illegal it is breaking the law but if an action seems morally incorrect that is unethical. In

1044-592: A decree from Cyrus the Great ( Ezra 1:1 – 4 , 2 Chronicles 36:22 – 23 ), construction started at the original site of the altar of Solomon's Temple. These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible. The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into

1160-471: A foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the Second Temple would be greater than that of the first. While the Temple may well have been consecrated in 516, construction and expansion may have continued as late as 500 BCE. Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 586 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked various holy articles, including

1276-400: A great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it." Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his/her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by Western culture rather than the truth about the human condition . Penner views property as an "illusion"—a "normative phantasm" without substance. In the neoliberal literature,

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1392-426: A massive expansion of the Temple Mount temenos . For example, the Temple Mount complex initially measured 7 hectares (17 acres) in size, but Herod expanded it to 14.4 hectares (36 acres) and so doubled its area. Herod's work on the Temple is generally dated from 20/19 BCE until 12/11 or 10 BCE. Writer Bieke Mahieu dates the work on the Temple enclosures from 25 BCE and that on the Temple building in 19 BCE, and situates

1508-514: A profit is the only concern of business, Duska argued. Peter Drucker once said, "There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed", implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations. However, Drucker in another instance said that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm— primum non nocere . Philosopher and author Ayn Rand has put forth her idea of rational egoism , which also applies to business ethics. She stresses that position of

1624-632: A similar episode related to the destruction of the city, according to which Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai , during the Roman siege of Jerusalem, requested of Vespasian that he spare the westernmost gates of the city ( Hebrew : פילי מערבאה ) that lead to Lydda ( Lod ). When the city was eventually taken, the Arab auxiliaries who had fought alongside the Romans under their general, Fanjar, also spared that westernmost wall from destruction. Jewish eschatology includes

1740-480: A slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution." Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right. Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons." Singer claims, "Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power

1856-571: A spot on the Mount described by Josephus, "where one of the priests to stand and to give notice, by sound of trumpet, in the afternoon of the approach, and on the following evening of the close, of every seventh day " closely resembling what the Talmud says. After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions' Gate . Thus,

1972-440: A strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple. On the invitation of Zerubbabel , the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics , besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm. First they erected and dedicated

2088-522: A trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone blocks were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 by 11 by 16.5 feet (13.6 m × 3.4 m × 5.0 m) and weighing approximately 567–628 tons. The Court of the Gentiles was primarily a bazaar , with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food. Currency was also exchanged, with Roman currency exchanged for Tyrian money, as also mentioned in

2204-421: A whole through taxation and/or the company's involvement in social action when it occurs. On the other hand, if a company's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility . Corporate entities are legal persons but this does not mean they are legally entitled to all of the rights and liabilities as natural persons. Ethics are

2320-499: A written code of ethics that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field. It is important to note that "law" and "ethics" are not synonymous, nor are the "legal" and "ethical" courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same. Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the "law". Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly would not say enslaving another

2436-425: Is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics , that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or the legal system. These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are

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2552-530: Is a political problem of the highest order". Rose finds, " 'Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques." Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights." Davis claims that common law theory generally favors

2668-616: Is also extant which dates from the time called the period of religious persecution ("shemad"). When Hadrian issued his decree forbidding the Jews to observe their religion, the teachers, including R. Akiba, R. Tarfon, and R. Jose the Galilean, met in council and agreed that during the time of the persecution the Law might be transgressed in all respects, except as regarded the commands relating to idolatry, chastity, and morality, although this regulation

2784-428: Is overlooked for another reason—issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics. Aristotle said, "the end and purpose of the polis is the good life". Adam Smith characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character. Smith in his The Wealth of Nations commented, "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of

2900-400: Is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person. Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of

3016-641: Is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure. Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, [in] common to all men". In 1802 utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, "property and law are born together and die together". One argument for property ownership

3132-500: Is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the 1st century BCE. The accounts of the temptation of Christ in the gospels of Matthew and Luke both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more ' pinnacles ': Then he [ Satan ] brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on

3248-606: The Waqf is extremely controversial. On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch , archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound that may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount . Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that

3364-735: The Ark of the Covenant containing the Tablets of Stone , before which were placed the pot of manna and Aaron's rod , the Urim and Thummim (divination objects contained in the Hoshen ), the holy oil and the sacred fire. The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great . No detailed description of

3480-779: The Babylonian Talmud , the Temple lacked the Shekhinah (the dwelling or settling divine presence of God) and the Ruach HaKodesh (holy spirit) present in the First Temple. Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great , it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated Pharaoh Ptolemy V Epiphanes at

3596-543: The Battle of Paneion . In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also, according to Josephus , "compelled Jews to dissolve the laws of the country, to keep their infants un- circumcised , and to sacrifice swine's flesh upon the altar; against which they all opposed themselves, and the most approved among them were put to death." Following the Maccabean Revolt against

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3712-619: The Hellenistic era . Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360, having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by

3828-595: The Herodian city of Jerusalem , and Yigael Shiloh in 1978–1982, in the city of David " have proven that the roofs of the Second Temple had no dome . In this, they support Josephus' description of the Second Temple. Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa , where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of

3944-677: The Mishnah had for long been used for proposing possible designs for the Temple up to 70 CE. The discovery of the Temple Scroll as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 20th century provided another possible source. Lawrence Schiffman states that after studying Josephus and the Temple Scroll, he found Josephus to be historically more reliable than the Temple Scroll. Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with

4060-806: The Three Pilgrimage Festivals : Passover , Shavuot , and Sukkot . Construction on the Second Temple began in the aftermath of the Persian conquest of Babylon ; the Second Temple's predecessor, known as Solomon's Temple , had been destroyed alongside the Kingdom of Judah as a whole by the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem around 587 BCE. After the Neo-Babylonian Empire was annexed by the Achaemenid Empire ,

4176-430: The black letter law , and to introduce ordinances of the class characterized as necessary "for the preservation of the order of the world," or "for the sake of peace." The regulations of this type, like those already mentioned, date from the mishnaic period, and were promulgated for the sake of morality. Ordinances relating to legal proceedings were highly important so long as the Jews retained their own judicial system in

4292-412: The entrepreneur , who has to be responsible for his own happiness and the business is a means to said happiness, where the entrepreneur is not required to serve the interest of anyone else and no-one is entitled to his/her work. Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of

4408-476: The high priest of Judaea . Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was next in the succession, agreed to be content with being high priest. Antipater , the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually, Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III , king of the Nabateans , and returned with an army to take back

4524-403: The shofar on Shabbat , or blessing the lulav and etrog , on Shabbat. These gezeirot are executed out of fear that some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating one of the 39 Melakhot , a greater sin than neglecting the banned mitzvah. Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions. In some cases,

4640-457: The young or the old ), gender / sexual harassment , race , religion , disability , weight and attractiveness. A common approach to remedying discrimination is affirmative action . Once hired, employees have the right to the occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit. Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants. It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with

4756-521: The 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labor or idea, and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right. Wiecek says, "Yet slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution than it had been under the Articles". In an 1857 judgment, US Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney said, "The right of property in

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4872-520: The 1940s that issued statutes on various affairs. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Wilhelm Bacher and Schulim Ochser (1901–1906). "Takkanah" . In Singer, Isidore ; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Its bibliography: Second Temple The Second Temple ( Hebrew : בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ‎ הַשֵּׁנִי ‎ Bēṯ hamMīqdāš hašŠēnī , transl.  'Second House of

4988-1627: The 1990s. Marketing ethics was approached from ethical perspectives of virtue or virtue ethics , deontology , consequentialism , pragmatism and relativism. Ethics in marketing deals with the principles, values and/or ideas by which marketers (and marketing institutions) ought to act. Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns. Ethical marketing issues include marketing redundant or dangerous products/services, transparency about environmental risks, transparency about product ingredients such as genetically modified organisms possible health risks, financial risks , security risks, etc., respect for consumer privacy and autonomy, advertising truthfulness and fairness in pricing & distribution. According to Borgerson, and Schroeder (2008), marketing can influence individuals' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions. Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as price fixing and legal actions including price discrimination and price skimming . Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including greenwashing , bait and switch , shilling , viral marketing , spam (electronic) , pyramid schemes and multi-level marketing . Advertising has raised objections about attack ads , subliminal messages , sex in advertising and marketing in schools . Scholars in business and management have paid much attention to

5104-569: The Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur . The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah, known as Kodashim , provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected with Temple service including the sacrifices , the Temple and its furnishings, as well as the priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service. Tractates of

5220-475: The Conservative Movement in modern times include allowing women to count in a minyan and to serve as witnesses to a beth din , as well as removing restrictions on kohen marriage. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel also adopted many such ordinances, though more moderate in character, among them various statutes regarding marriage and divorce. The rabbis of Morocco held several conferences in

5336-528: The Diaspora. They are a form of business ethics . These include: The making of new ordinances did not end with the completion of the Mishnah : enactments were promulgated also in the Amoraic , Saboraic , and Geonic periods of Jewish law, although their exact dates are no longer known. These include: The Conservative Movement also allows its leaders to issue takkanot today. Examples of takkanot issued by

5452-561: The Empire, claims the burning of the Temple was the impulsive act of a Roman soldier, despite Titus's orders to preserve it, whereas later Christian sources, traced to Tacitus , suggest that Titus himself authorized the destruction, a view currently favored by modern scholars, though the debate persists. The Arch of Titus , which was built in Rome to commemorate Titus's victory in Judea, depicts

5568-467: The Great of the Achaemenid Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible. Some rudimentary ritual sacrifice had continued at the site of the first temple following its destruction. According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah , when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following

5684-400: The Great , who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died, and was succeeded by his son Cambyses . On his death, the "false Smerdis ", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion, under

5800-718: The New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers , when Jerusalem was packed with Jewish pilgrims who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000. Above the Huldah Gates , on top the Temple walls, was the Royal Stoa , a large basilica praised by Josephus as "more worthy of mention than any other [structure] under the sun"; its main part was a lengthy Hall of Columns which includes 162 columns, structured in four rows. The Royal Stoa

5916-570: The Persian king Cyrus the Great issued the so-called Edict of Cyrus , which is described in the Hebrew Bible as having authorized and encouraged the return to Zion —a biblical event in which the Jewish people returned to the former Kingdom of Judah, which the Persians had recently restructured as the self-governing Jewish province of Yehud Medinata . The completion of the Second Temple at

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6032-582: The Sanctum' ) was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem , in use between c.  516 BCE and its destruction in 70 CE. In its last phase it was enhanced by Herod the Great , the result being later called Herod's Temple . Defining the Second Temple period , it stood as a pivotal symbol of Jewish identity and was central to Second Temple Judaism ; it was the chief place of worship, ritual sacrifice ( korban ), and communal gathering for Jews . As such, it attracted Jewish pilgrims from distant lands during

6148-645: The Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean Kingdom , as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah . There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra , the queen of the Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as

6264-478: The Table of Showbread and the golden altar of incense , with golden censers . Traditional rabbinic literature states that the Second Temple stood for 420 years, and, based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah , placed construction in 356 BCE (3824 AM ), 164 years later than academic estimates, and destruction in 68 CE (3828 AM ). According to the Mishnah , the " Foundation Stone " stood where

6380-508: The Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Jewish sages had the authority to make a gezeirah even if it would "uproot a matter from the Torah". In Talmudic and classical halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be biblically sanctioned ( shev v'al ta'aseh ). Rabbis may rule that a Torah mitzvah should not be performed, e.g. blowing

6496-617: The Temple's architecture is given in the Hebrew Bible, save that it was sixty cubits in both width and height, and was constructed with stone and lumber. In the Second Temple, the Holy of Holies ( Kodesh Hakodashim ) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle , the Second Temple included the Menorah (golden lamp) for the Hekhal ,

6612-403: The altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris that occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by

6728-590: The ancient world's largest religious sanctuary. In 70 CE, at the height of the First Jewish–Roman War , the Second Temple was destroyed by the Roman siege of Jerusalem , marking a cataclysmic and transformative point in Jewish history . The loss of the Second Temple prompted the development of Rabbinic Judaism , which remains the mainstream form of Jewish religious practices globally. The accession of Cyrus

6844-505: The attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the Cold War . However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of entrepreneurs and critics were accused of supporting communists . This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia. The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct. This era began

6960-488: The belief and support of self-regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere. One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the Tirukkuṛaḷ , a Tamil book dated variously from 300 BCE to the 7th century CE and attributed to Thiruvalluvar . Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular, verse 113, adapting to

7076-405: The case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law." Some emerging ethical issues are: This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining

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7192-401: The city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices. The writings of Flavius Josephus and the information in tractate Middot of

7308-449: The communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals. In the US and most other nations, corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited. This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities. Duska argued that stakeholders expect

7424-579: The communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes. Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business. According to a 1990 article in the Journal of Business Ethics , "Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today." Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period. As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable. Business ethics and

7540-529: The court of Yavne : Ascribed to the court of Yavne: After R. Gamaliel's death the Sanhedrin of Yavne seems to have gone to Usha for reasons which are no longer known, and the grounds of its takkanot are equally obscure. In view of their ethical import, however, these enactments soon became binding. They were as follows: These ordinances were enacted by the rabbis of the second generation of tannaim , Rabbi Ishmael being especially mentioned. An ordinance

7656-539: The dedication of both in November 18 BCE. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process. The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE. Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece

7772-765: The destruction of the Temple: To Ezra : To the men of the Great Assembly : Ascribed to John Hyrcanus (135-106 BC): By the court of the Hasmoneans: By the priestly court : By Shimon ben Shetach : By Hillel the Elder (75 BC - 5 AD): By Gamaliel I (mid-1st century): Most of the ordinances of Yohanan ben Zakkai were promulgated before the time of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem . These include: Ascribed to Gamaliel II and

7888-518: The ethical course can be difficult. In some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution , habitat destruction and urban sprawl . The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power , genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited

8004-439: The ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter ; and the marketing of corporations' ethics policies. According to research published by the Institute of Business Ethics and Ipsos MORI in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption. Ethical standards of an entire organization can be damaged if

8120-461: The ethical issues in the different forms of relationships between organizations such as buyer-supplier relationships, networks, alliances , or joint ventures . Drawing in particular on Transaction Cost Theory and Agency Theory , they note the risk of opportunistic and unethical practices between partners through, for instance, shirking, poaching , and other deceitful behaviors. In turn, research on inter-organizational relationships has observed

8236-792: The global market with minimal regulation over capital flows. The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy. Some pragmatic ethicists , found these claims to be unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se. Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives. Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical panacea . Neoliberal recommendations to developing countries to unconditionally open up their economies to transnational finance corporations

8352-468: The ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of "financial repressions", best help impoverished nations to grow. The theory holds that open financial systems accelerate economic growth by encouraging foreign capital inflows, thereby enabling higher levels of savings, investment, employment, productivity and "welfare", along with containing corruption. Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to

8468-466: The inscription. Herod himself was a converted Idumean (or Edomite) and was unlikely to exclude himself or his descendants. Another ancient inscription , partially preserved on a stone discovered below the southwest corner of the Herodian Mount, contains the words "to the place of trumpeting". The stone's shape suggests that it was part of a parapet, and it has been interpreted as belonging to

8584-413: The interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non- economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said in 1776, "People of

8700-520: The large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves. More recent findings from the Temple Mount Sifting Project include floor tiling from the Second Temple period. The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70. Business ethics Business ethics (also known as corporate ethics )

8816-549: The many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money , the latter two considered religious. In 66 CE, the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, on the Hebrew calendrical date of Tisha B'Av , either 4 August 70 or 30 August 70, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and Herod's Temple . Josephus, while an apologist for

8932-477: The mix of debt and equity , dividend policy , the evaluation of alternative investment projects, options , futures , swaps , and other derivatives , portfolio diversification and many others. Finance is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens. The 2008 financial crisis caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U.S. and European financial institutions and financial regulatory bodies. Finance ethics

9048-416: The most people in the long term. Duska argued that Friedman failed to differentiate two very different aspects of business: (1) the motive of individuals, who are generally motivated by profit to participate in business, and (2) the socially sanctioned purpose of business, or the reason why people allow businesses to exist, which is to provide goods and services to people. So Friedman was wrong that making

9164-604: The newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution . Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals . There are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals. The etymological root of property is the Latin proprius , which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc. The word property

9280-455: The object is to win, and winning is measured in terms solely of material wealth. Within the discipline, this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory-of-the-firm's sine qua non". Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth. Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models. However, signalling theory and agency theory extended

9396-419: The order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, and meal offerings , the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as the sin offering and the guilt offering , and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple ( tractate Middot ), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple ( tractate Tamid ). According to

9512-717: The paradigm to greater realism. Fairness in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and executive compensation also, fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting. Particular corporate ethical/legal abuses include: creative accounting , earnings management , misleading financial analysis, insider trading , securities fraud , bribery /kickbacks and facilitation payments . Outside of corporations, bucket shops and forex scams are criminal manipulations of financial markets. Cases include accounting scandals , Enron , WorldCom and Satyam . Human resource management occupies

9628-554: The partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities . In 1935 a fragment of another similar Temple warning inscription was found. The word "foreigner" has an ambiguous meaning. Some scholars believe it referred to all gentiles, regardless of ritual purity status or religion. Others argue that it referred to unconverted Gentiles since Herod wrote

9744-506: The pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, "If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here." The Greek word used is πτερύγιον ( pterugion ), which literally means a tower, rampart, or pinnacle. According to Strong's Concordance , it can mean little wing, or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet. The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to

9860-548: The principles that guide a business. Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization. Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects

9976-407: The prohibition extended to those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the soreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines: ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and

10092-540: The property is part of the private side of a public/private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict". Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common. When groups came into conflict,

10208-428: The purpose of a business organization is to make profit for shareholders. Nevertheless, the purpose of maximizing shareholder's wealth often "fails to energize employees". In practice, many non-shareholders also benefit from a firm's economic activity, among them employees through contractual compensation and its broader impact, consumers by the tangible or non-tangible value derived from their purchase choices; society as

10324-458: The purview of individual companies. Trade unions , for example, may push employers to establish due process for workers, but may also cause job loss by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules. Unionized workplaces may confront union busting and strike breaking and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others. Among the many people management strategies that companies employ are

10440-661: The question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not." This view is known as the Friedman doctrine . A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the "informed public" ranging from 30 to 80%. Ronald Duska and Jacques Cory have described Friedman's argument as consequentialist or utilitarian rather than pragmatic : Friedman's argument implies that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit

10556-569: The reign of Herod the Great , hence the alternative eponymous name for the structure. Herod's transformation efforts resulted in a grand and imposing structure and courtyard, including the large edifices and façades shown in modern models, such as the Holyland Model of Jerusalem in the Israel Museum . The Temple Mount , where both Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple stood, was also significantly expanded, doubling in size to become

10672-465: The remaining part of the Temple Mount is not only the Western Wall . Currently, Robinson's Arch (named after American Edward Robinson ) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. Visitors and pilgrims also entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side that led through colonnades to

10788-517: The resulting behavior evolved as well. Business was involved in slavery , colonialism , and the Cold War . The term 'business ethics' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s. By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics. The Society for Business Ethics

10904-522: The role of formal and informal mechanisms to both prevent unethical practices and mitigate their consequences. It especially discusses the importance of formal contracts and relational norms between partners to manage ethical issues. Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically. The business's actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue. "In

11020-427: The rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis. Many consider "ethics" with conscience or a simplistic sense of "right" and "wrong". Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores. Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have

11136-464: The sages allowed the temporary violation of a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole. This was part of the basis for Esther 's relationship with Ahasuerus . Ascribed to Moses : To Joshua : To Boaz , the ancestor of David: To King David : To King Solomon : To the early prophets: To the Prophets before the destruction of Solomon's Temple: To the Prophets after

11252-471: The same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to

11368-571: The site of what today is the Dome of the Rock . The gates led close to what is now al-Aqsa Mosque , built much later. Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new Roman colonia called Aelia Capitolina . At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred. Jews were banned from entering Jerusalem. A Roman temple

11484-753: The southeast corner of the Temple overlooking the Kidron Valley . According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate. According to Josephus, Herod the Great erected a golden eagle over the great gate of the Temple. Joachim Bouflet  [ fr ] states that "the teams of archaeologists Nahman Avigad in 1969–1980 in

11600-486: The spectators. The Samaritans wanted to help with this work but Zerubbabel and the elders declined such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple unaided. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to Ezra 4:5 , the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended. Seven years later, Cyrus

11716-612: The sphere of activity of recruitment selection, orientation, performance appraisal , training and development , industrial relations and health and safety issues. Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labor ethics. Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the dignity of labor . Issues including employment itself , privacy , compensation in accord with comparable worth , collective bargaining (and/or its opposite) can be seen either as inalienable rights or as negotiable. Discrimination by age (preferring

11832-461: The stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah . It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar , in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people, although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to

11948-745: The throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey , who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War , sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this, which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romans besieged and took

12064-497: The time of the Persian king Darius I signified a period of renewed Jewish hope and religious revival. According to biblical sources, the Second Temple was originally a relatively modest structure built under the authority of the Persian-appointed Jewish governor Zerubbabel , the grandson of Jeconiah , the penultimate king of Judah . In the 1st century BCE, the Second Temple was refurbished and expanded under

12180-429: The top of the platform. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archaeological digs have found numerous mikvehs (ritual baths) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, and a grand stairway leading to one of the now blocked entrances. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon's Stables , which still exist. Their current renovation by

12296-506: The view that "property is not essentially a 'right to a thing', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake". In common parlance property rights involve a bundle of rights including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights. Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights. Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on

12412-443: The workplace what is unethical does not mean illegal and should follow the guidelines put in place by OSHA ( Occupational Safety and Health Administration ), EEOC ( Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ), and other law binding entities. Potential employees have ethical obligations to employers, involving intellectual property protection and whistle-blowing . Employers must consider workplace safety , which may involve modifying

12528-420: The workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure. This differentiates on the location and type of work that is taking place and can need to comply with the standards to protect employees and non-employees under workplace safety. Larger economic issues such as immigration , trade policy , globalization and trade unionism affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond

12644-492: The world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe". During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. Combined with theological justification, the property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of

12760-417: The world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind." However, a section of economists influenced by the ideology of neoliberalism , interpreted the objective of economics to be maximization of economic growth through accelerated consumption and production of goods and services . Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core. Proponents of

12876-420: Was an "ethical" act. Economist Milton Friedman wrote that corporate executives' "responsibility ... generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom". Friedman also said, "the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals ... A business cannot have responsibilities. So

12992-413: Was fiercely contested by some ethicists. The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested. Dobson observes, "a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum. In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive. Business is a game played by individuals, as with all games

13108-537: Was founded in 1980. European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network. In 1982 the first single-authored books in the field appeared. Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the savings and loan crisis . The concept of business ethics caught

13224-427: Was observed only superficially and only when necessary in order to deceive the Roman spies. Three ordinances have been preserved which were promulgated by R. Jose ben Halafta (third generation of tannaim): To R. Judah HaNasi : Ordinances from the period of the Mishnah and relating to women are as follows: The more the Jews came in contact with the Romans and the Persians, the more they were obliged to mitigate

13340-574: Was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple for the practice of Roman religion . Historical accounts relate that not only the Jewish Temple was destroyed, but also the entire Lower city of Jerusalem. Even so, according to Josephus, Titus did not totally raze the towers (such as the Tower of Phasael , now erroneously called the Tower of David ), keeping them as a memorial of the city's strength. The Midrash Rabba ( Eikha Rabba 1:32) recounts

13456-518: Was the Temple of Jerusalem. Later, the sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax . Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1,600 feet (490 m) wide by 900 feet (270 m) broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet (4.9 m) thick, but had never been finished. To complete it,

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