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21-736: Nowadays, its population is estimated to be around 709,000. The Tekna tribes speak Hassaniya Arabic and the Berber Shilha dialect in varying degrees. All Tekna are Muslims , belonging to the Maliki school of Sunni Islam . Their traditional lifestyle was partly nomadic , based on camel and goat herding, and partly sedentary, controlling important routes of the Saharan caravan trade . The Tekna are divided into several Berber-speaking and Arabic-speaking tribes, which are organized into two tribal confederations or leff : During

42-496: A double appearance: /θaqiːl/ 'heavy (mentally)' vs. /θɡiːl/ 'heavy (materially)'. Some of the "classicizing" forms are easily explained as recent loans from the literary language (such as /qaː.nuːn/ 'law') or from sedentary dialects in case of concepts pertaining to the sedentary way of life (such as /mqass/ 'scissors' above). For others, there is no obvious explanation (like /mrˤədˤ/ 'to be sick'). Etymological /ðˤ/ appears constantly as /ðˤ/ , never as /dˤ/ . Nevertheless,

63-592: A vowel: /uːɡ.vu/ 'they stood up'. In addition, short vowels /a i/ in open syllables are found in Berber loanwords, such as /a.raː.ɡaːʒ/ 'man', /i.vuː.kaːn/ 'calves of 1 to 2 years of age', and /u/ in passive formation: /u.ɡaː.bəl/ 'he was met' (cf. /ɡaː.bəl/ 'he met'). Many educated Hassaniya Arabic speakers also practice code-switching . In Western Sahara it is common for code-switching to occur between Hassaniya Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic , and Spanish , as Spain had previously controlled this region ; in

84-516: Is a variety of Maghrebi Arabic spoken by Mauritanian and Malian Arabs and the Sahrawi people . It was spoken by the Beni Ḥassān Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who extended their authority over most of Mauritania and Western Sahara between the 15th and 17th centuries. Hassaniya Arabic was the language spoken in the pre-modern region around Chinguetti . The language has completely replaced

105-402: Is a series of "dental" consonants, written th , nh , and (in some languages) lh . They are always laminal (pronounced by touching with the blade of the tongue) but may be formed in one of three different ways, depending on the language, the speaker, and how carefully the speaker pronounces the sound. They are apical interdental [t̺͆~d̺͆ n̺͆ l̺͆] with the tip of the tongue visible between

126-555: Is likewise realised voiceless in a geminated position, although not fricative but plosive: [qː] . In other positions, etymological /ʁ/ seems to be in free variation with /q/ (etymological /q/ , however varies only with /ɡ/ ). Vowel phonemes come in two series: long and short. The long vowels are the same as in Classical Arabic /aː iː uː/ , and the short ones extend this by one: /a i u ə/ . The classical diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/ may be realised in many different ways,

147-404: Is required, but it is more common to transcribe them as advanced alveolars, as in ⟨ n̟ t̟ d̟ θ̟ ð̟ r̟ ɹ̟ l̟ ɬ̟ ɮ̟ ⟩. Interdental consonants are rare cross-linguistically. Interdental realisations of otherwise-dental or alveolar consonants may occur as idiosyncrasies or as coarticulatory effects of a neighbouring interdental sound. The most commonly-occurring interdental consonants are

168-573: Is spoken in Algeria , Morocco , Mauritania , Guinea-Bissau , Mali , Niger , Senegal and the Western Sahara . The phonological system of Hassānīya exhibits both very innovative and very conservative features. All phonemes of Classical Arabic are represented in the dialect, but there are also many new phonemes. As in other Bedouin dialects , Classical /q/ corresponds mostly to dialectal /ɡ/ ; /dˤ/ and /ðˤ/ have merged into /ðˤ/ ; and

189-615: The Berber languages that were originally spoken in this region. Although clearly a western dialect, Hassānīya is relatively distant from other Maghrebi variants of Arabic. Its geographical location exposed it to influence from Zenaga-Berber and Pulaar . There are several dialects of Hassaniya, which differ primarily phonetically. There are still traces of South Arabian in Hassaniya Arabic spoken between Rio de Oro and Timbuktu , according to G. S. Colin. Today, Hassaniya Arabic

210-443: The interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ have been preserved. The letter ج /d͡ʒ/ is realized as /ʒ/ . However, there is sometimes a double correspondence of a classical sound and its dialectal counterpart. Thus, classical /q/ is represented by /ɡ/ in /ɡbaðˤ/ 'to take' but by /q/ in /mqass/ 'scissors'. Similarly, /dˤ/ becomes /ðˤ/ in /ðˤəħk/ 'laugh (noun)', but /dˤ/ in /mrˤədˤ/ 'to be sick'. Some consonant roots even have

231-697: The 17th century, Morocco under Sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif seized control over the territory from the Tafna River south to Senegal and Timbuktu . Contingents of Tekna troops were then sent to the Senegal valley on behalf of the Sultan. After 1765 the Tekna revolted, acquiring greater autonomy. On May 30, 1767, Mohammed ben Abdallah , Sultan of Morocco , signed a peace and commerce treaty with King Charles III of Spain , recognizing that Morocco did not control

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252-729: The Tekna tribes. However, at the time of the Spanish colonization and at the beginning of the 20th century, the Tekna tribes recognized the Sultan of Morocco as their spiritual ruler, but not its political one. (in French) Attilo Gaudio, "Les populations du Sahara occidental: histoire, vie et culture", ed. Karthala 1993, (Chap. VIII, pp. 97–116) ( ISBN   2-86537-411-4 ) [2] Hassaniya Arabic Hassaniya Arabic ( Arabic : حسانية , romanized :  Ḥassānīya ; also known as Hassaniyya , Klem El Bithan , Hassani , Hassaniya , and Maure )

273-665: The distribution and the usage of interdental [l̟] in English are not clear. Interdental approximant s [ð̞] are found in about a dozen Philippine languages , including Kagayanen ( Manobo branch), Karaga Mandaya ( Mansakan branch), Kalagan ( Mansakan branch), Southern Catanduanes Bicolano , and several varieties of Kalinga , as well as in the Bauchi languages of Nigeria. Interdental [ɮ̟] occurs in some dialects of Amis . Mapuche has interdental [n̟] , [t̟] , and [l̟] . In most Indigenous Australian languages , there

294-453: The most usual variants being [eːʲ] and [oːʷ] , respectively. Still, realisations like [aj] and [aw] as well as [eː] and [oː] are possible, although less common. As in most Maghrebi Arabic dialects, etymological short vowels are generally dropped in open syllables (except for the feminine noun ending /-a/ < /-ah/ ): */tak.tu.biː/ > /tə.ktbi/ 'you (f. sg.) write', */ka.ta.ba/ > */ka.tab/ > /ktəb/ 'he wrote'. In

315-575: The non- sibilant fricatives (sibilants may be dental but do not appear as interdentals). Apparently, interdentals do not contrast with dental consonants in any language. Voiced and voiceless interdental fricatives [ð̟, θ̟] appear in American English as the initial sounds of words like 'then' and 'thin'. In British English , the consonants are more likely to be dental [ð, θ] . An interdental [l̟] occurs in some varieties of Italian , and it may also occur in some varieties of English though

336-571: The number of consonant phonemes in Hassānīya is 31, or 43 counting the marginal cases. On the phonetic level, the classical consonants /f/ and /θ/ are usually realised as voiced [v] (hereafter marked /v/ ) and [θ̬] . The latter is still, however, pronounced differently from /ð/ , the distinction probably being in the amount of air blown out (Cohen 1963: 13–14). In geminated and word-final positions both phonemes are voiceless, for some speakers /θ/ apparently in all positions. The uvular fricative /ʁ/

357-535: The phonemic status of /q/ and /dˤ/ as well as /ɡ/ and /ðˤ/ appears very stable, unlike in many other Arabic varieties. Somewhat similarly, classical /ʔ/ has in most contexts disappeared or turned into /w/ or /j/ ( /ahl/ 'family' instead of /ʔahl/ , /wak.kad/ 'insist' instead of /ʔak.kad/ and /jaː.məs/ 'yesterday' instead of /ʔams/ ). In some literary terms, however, it is clearly preserved: /mət.ʔal.lam/ 'suffering (participle)' (classical /mu.ta.ʔal.lim/ ). Hassānīya has innovated many consonants by

378-564: The remaining closed syllables dialectal /a/ generally corresponds to classical /a/ , while classical /i/ and /u/ have merged into /ə/ . Remarkably, however, morphological /j/ is represented by [i] and /w/ by [u] in a word-initial pre-consonantal position: /u.ɡəft/ 'I stood up' (root w-g-f ; cf. /ktəbt/ 'I wrote', root k-t-b ), /i.naɡ.ɡaz/ 'he descends' (subject prefix i- ; cf. /jə.ktəb/ 'he writes', subject prefix jə- ). In some contexts, this initial vowel even gets lengthened, which clearly demonstrates its phonological status of

399-549: The rest of Hassaniya-speaking lands, French is the additional language spoken. Hassaniya Arabic is normally written with an Arabic script . However, in Senegal , the government has adopted the use of the Latin script to write the language, as established by Decree 2005–980 of October 21, 2005. According to Ethnologue , there are approximately three million Hassaniya speakers, distributed as follows: Interdental consonant Interdental consonants are produced by placing

420-560: The spread of the distinction emphatic/non-emphatic . In addition to the above-mentioned, /rˤ/ and /lˤ/ have a clear phonemic status and /bˤ fˤ ɡˤ mˤ nˤ/ more marginally so. One additional emphatic phoneme /zˤ/ is acquired from the neighboring Zenaga Berber language along with a whole palatal series /c ɟ ɲ/ from Niger–Congo languages of the south. At least some speakers make the distinction /p/–/b/ through borrowings from French (and Spanish in Western Sahara). All in all,

441-435: The tip of the tongue between the upper and lower front teeth. That differs from typical dental consonants , which are articulated with the tongue against the back of the upper incisors. No language is known to contrast interdental and dental consonants. Interdental consonants may be transcribed with the extIPA subscript, plus superscript bridge, as in ⟨ n̪͆ t̪͆ d̪͆ θ̪͆ ð̪͆ r̪͆ ɹ̪͆ l̪͆ ɬ̪͆ ɮ̪͆ ⟩, if precision

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