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121-650: The Tanaka Memorial was first published in the December 1929 edition of the Chinese publication "時事月報" ( Current Affairs Monthly ) in Nanking , a Nationalist Chinese publication. It was reproduced on 24 September 1931 on pp. 923–34 of China Critic , an English publication in Shanghai. The memorial contains the assertions: The English translation of this document was in circulation before February 1934, and formed

242-531: A Han Chinese Bannerman . When he became old enough to work, he got a job at a stable in an inn, where he became familiar with many bandit gangs operating in Manchuria at the time. At the age of twenty, he enlisted as a cavalry soldier to fight in the First Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895). After the end of the war, he returned to his hometown and became a bandit. In one version of his beginnings as

363-536: A Mongol officer under Zhang, was instrumental in bringing Oomoto leader Onisaburo Deguchi , and Aikido founder Morihei Ueshiba , to Mongolia in 1924. At the beginning of the 1920s, Zhang transformed Manchuria from an unimportant frontier region to one of the most prosperous parts of China. He had inherited a financially weak provincial government—in 1917 Fengtian faced ten outstanding loans from foreign-controlled consortia and banks totaling over 12 million yuan. Zhang chose Wang Yongjiang , who had served as head of

484-467: A province . It has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honor of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honor Award and National Civilized City. Nanjing is also considered a Beta (global second-tier) city classification, together with Chongqing , Hangzhou and Tianjin by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , and ranked as one of the world's top 100 cities in

605-770: A 1671 account by a French missionary. The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing

726-889: A Japanese-collaborationist government known as the " Nanjing Regime " or "Reorganized National Government of China" led by Wang Jingwei was established in Nanjing as a rival to Chiang Kai-shek 's government in Chongqing. In 1946, after the Surrender of Japan , the KMT relocated its central government back to Nanjing. In April 1949, Communist forces crossed the Yangtze River and the Communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) captured Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton ( Guangzhou ) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to

847-696: A bit more", for which Zhang Xiluan was recalled to Beijing while Zhang Zuolin was promoted. In March 1916, after many southern provinces revolted against Yuan Shikai's government, Zhang supported him but expelled a local military governor sent by Duan Qirui to replace him, with some support from local Japanese officers in the Kwantung Army . Beijing accepted Zhang's authority and Yuan appointed Zhang superintendent of military affairs in Liaoning (known as " Fengtian " until 1929). After Yuan died in June 1916,

968-662: A decisive, single grand showdown as his father successfully did against the Dutch at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay , throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus (Tartares) considered returning to Manchuria (Tartary) and abandoning China according to

1089-593: A divisional commander of the North China Zhili clique , which was based in the province of Zhili that surrounded Beijing. In the spring of 1922, Zhang personally took the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Fengtian Army , and on April 19 his forces entered China proper. As his men took Beijing three days later, fighting soon broke out. On May 4, the Fengtian Army was seriously defeated by

1210-561: A farce. The soldiers freed some of their comrades who had been imprisoned as contacts, and they escaped to the mining town of Dalainor on the Amur River , where a quarter of the population died. In the other direction, all of the towns along the Chinese Eastern Railway as far as Vladivostok were infected. Around 9,000 died, while only a few contacts were able to reach south Manchuria. The Japanese posed more of

1331-579: A history 2595 years long. In 541, Wu built Laizhu Town in Gaochun—because of its strong city, it was also called Gucheng. Fuchai , King of the State of Wu , founded a fort named Yecheng in today's Nanjing area in 495   BC. Wu was conquered by the State of Yue in 473 BC, and the city was rebuilt at the mouth of the Qinhuai River in the following year. Later it was called Yuecheng ( 越城 ) on

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1452-619: A large number of local militias into his army, and thus prevented Manchuria from falling into the chaos which reigned in China proper at the time. Jilin province was ruled by a military governor, who was said to be a cousin of Zhang; Heilongjiang had its own regional warlord, who never displayed any ambitions outside the province. Although Manchuria officially remained a part of the Republic of China , it became more or less an independent state isolated from China by its geography and protected by

1573-434: A large section of the city for the bannermen 's cantonment, and occupied the former imperial Ming Palace , but otherwise the city was spared the mass murders and destruction that befell Yangzhou . Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in Nanjing in 1659 ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted

1694-514: A new Ming Palace complex, and government halls. It took 200,000 laborers 21 years to finish the wall, which was intended to defend the city and its surrounding region from coastal pirates. The present-day City Wall of Nanjing was mainly built during that time and today it remains in good condition and has been well preserved. It is among the longest surviving city walls in China. The Jianwen Emperor ruled from Yingtian from 1398 to 1402. It

1815-444: A new governor, whose only job was to supply the Fengtian Army with large amounts of money. He issued new provincial bonds and forced businesses and local communities to purchase them. (Early in 1927, he even entered into the opium trade by selling expensive licenses for the sale and use of opium.) Bank reserves and railway revenues were plundered, and ever more paper notes were issued. The best indicator of Manchuria's economic decline

1936-402: A number of leading figures in his base city of Shenyang (then known as "Mukden"), and was rewarded with a series of impressive-sounding titles by the nearly defunct Qing court. When it became obvious to Zhang that Yuan would usurp control of the central government, he endorsed Yuan's rule over that of either Sun or the Manchus. After Zhang put down a rebellion in June 1912, Yuan raised him to

2057-590: A number of other names, and some historical names are now used as names of districts of the city. The city was known as Yuecheng and Jinling or "Ginling" ( 金陵 ) from the Warring States Era. Jianye ( 建业 ; Chien-yeh ), which means 'build an empire', was officially designated for the city during the Eastern Wu dynasty . The city first became a Chinese national capital as early as the Jin dynasty and

2178-594: A problem. After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 they had gained two important outposts in south Manchuria: The Kwantung Leased Territory consisted of a 218-square-mile (560 km ) peninsula in the southernmost part of Manchuria. It included the ice-free port of Dairen (Chinese: Dalian), which became the main link to Japan. Reaching northward from the colony, the South Manchurian Railway passed through Shenyang (referred to as Mukden by

2299-427: A regional tax office, for the task of solving Fengtian's financial problems. He was appointed director of the bureau of finance. A number of currencies were circulating in the province, as was the custom in China, and the paper notes issued by the provincial government had experienced a steady depreciation in value. Wang decided to switch to a silver standard and set the initial value of the new silver yuan equal to

2420-532: A restoration was ever attempted. In 1917 he plotted with Zhang Xun , a Qing-loyalist general, to restore the abdicated Puyi to the throne. Zhang Zuolin proposed talking to the National Assembly about a possible restoration. After Zhang Xun rebelled, Zhang Zuolin remained neutral and actually supported Duan Qirui in suppressing Zhang Xun after it became clear that Duan would win. Zhang was able to absorb soldiers of nearby commanders who had been linked to

2541-404: A review of government-sponsored firms . From 1918, revenues rose steadily, and by 1921 all outstanding loans had been repaid and there was even a budget surplus. Wang was rewarded by being appointed Civil Governor of Fengtian province while remaining director of the bureau of finance. He retained the title of Military Governor of Fengtian. Still, more than two-thirds of the budget was allocated to

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2662-518: A reward, Zhang was granted control over most of Inner Mongolia to the west of Manchuria. In December 1921, Zhang visited Beijing; at his request, the entire cabinet, led by Jin Yunpeng , resigned, leaving him free to appoint a new government. Installing Liang Shiyi as premier, he proposed a new constitution and the resolution of the republic's financial difficulties. Now a figure of national prominence, he quickly came into conflict with Wu Peifu ,

2783-769: A separation of civil and military administration in all of the three provinces. Wang returned on August 6, thereby ensuring Manchuria's continued stability. In the following years Wang realized a far-reaching development plan. He tried to bring more workers into the booming Manchurian economy. Most had come on a temporary basis , returning to their homes in North China in winter. The Manchurian government now encouraged them to bring women and children, and settle permanently. As an incentive, they were made eligible for reduced fares on all Chinese-owned railways in Manchuria, received funds to build dwellings and were promised total ownership after five years of continuous occupation. Rent for

2904-741: A thousand years, is recognized as one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China . It has been one of the world's largest cities , enjoying peace and prosperity despite various wars and disasters. Nanjing served as the capital of Eastern Wu (229–280), one of the three major states in the Three Kingdoms period; the Eastern Jin and each of the Southern dynasties ( Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang and Chen ), which successively ruled southern China from 317 to 589;

3025-631: A warlord, during a hunting trip he spotted a wounded bandit ( Honghuzi ) on horseback, killed him, took his horse and became a bandit himself. By his late 20s he had formed a small personal army, acquiring something of a Robin Hood reputation. His bandit career was euphemistically referred to as his experience in the "University of the Green Forest", as he was illiterate. During his time of banditry, he became close with some figures who later occupied important positions in his military clique. In 1900

3146-459: Is a collective term for six Chinese dynasties mentioned above which all maintained national capitals at Jiankang. The six dynasties were: Eastern Wu (222–280), Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420) and four southern dynasties (420–589). At the end of the Eastern Han dynasty , the warlord Sun Quan , who ruled Jiangdong , moved his ruling office to Moling in 211 AD. The following year, he built

3267-583: Is alleged that the Tanaka Memorial is a secret report of this Conference. When the Allies searched for incriminating documents to support war crime charges following the surrender of Japan , no drafts or copies of anything which corresponded to the Tanaka Memorial appeared among them; a Japanese language "original" has never been produced despite extensive research efforts. The origin of

3388-651: Is believed that Nanjing was the largest city in the world from 1358 to 1425 with a population of 487,000 in 1400. Having usurped power from his nephew and uncertain of the loyalty of the region's officials, the Yongle Emperor relocated the capital in 1421 to Beijing, where he had long served as the regional governor as the Prince of Yan . Because the new status of Yingtian was included in the Hongwu Emperor's " ancestral injunctions " for his dynasty, however,

3509-763: Is now Qixia . In the Jiangning district, ruins of primitive villages from the Neolithic Age were discovered. About 4000 years ago, dense Bronze Age primitive settlements appeared in the Qinhuai River Basin, labeled as the Hushu culture. The earliest cities in Nanjing were formed around these settlements. Due to the volume of archeological finds in the area related to the Taowu and Hushu cultures, many historians, anthropologists, and archeologists frequent

3630-603: Is the capital of Jiangsu province in eastern China . The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of 6,600 km (2,500 sq mi), and as of 2021 a population of 9,423,400. Situated in the Yangtze River Delta region, Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture , having served as the capital of various Chinese dynasties , kingdoms and republican governments dating from

3751-763: The Boxer Rebellion broke out, and Zhang's gang joined the imperial army . In peacetime he hired his men out as security escorts for traveling merchants. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 the Japanese Army employed Zhang and his men as mercenaries . At the end of the Qing dynasty Zhang managed to have his men recognised as a regiment of the regular Chinese army, patrolling the borders of Manchuria and suppressing other bandit gangs. The American surgeon Louis Livingston Seaman met Zhang during

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3872-461: The Fengtian clique , one of the most important factions during China 's Warlord Era . During the last year of his life, he briefly installed himself as Generalissimo of the Republic of China . Born to a poor peasant's family in Manchuria, Zhang became a prominent bandit in the region in the 1890s. After the Boxer Rebellion , his troops became a regiment of the Qing dynasty 's army, and during

3993-543: The First Opium War , was signed in the city harbor on Royal Navy warships. As the capital of the brief-lived rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in the mid-19th century, Nanjing was known as Tianjing ( 天京 ; 'Heavenly Capital" or "Capital of Heaven'). The rebellion destroyed most of the former Ming imperial buildings in the city, including the Porcelain Tower , considered up to that time as one of

4114-596: The Global Financial Centres Index . As of 2021, Nanjing has 68 institutions of higher learning, including 13 double-first-class universities , ten 111-plan universities, eight 211 universities , and 97 academies. Nanjing University , which has a long history, is among the world's top 20 universities ranked by the Nature Index . The ratio of college students to the total population ranks No.1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing has

4235-759: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal after the atomic bombings, was between 300,000 and 350,000. The city itself was also severely damaged during the massacre. The Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall was built in 1985 to commemorate this event. A few days before the fall of the city, the National Government of China was relocated to the southwestern city Chongqing and resumed Chinese resistance. In 1940,

4356-721: The Japanese puppet regime of Wang Jingwei (1940–45) during the Second Sino-Japanese War . It suffered many notable devastating atrocities in both conflicts, most notably the Nanjing Massacre from late 1937 to early 1938. Nanjing became the capital city of Jiangsu province in 1952, after serving as a Direct-administered Municipality from 1949 to 1952 following the establishment of the People's Republic of China. It has many important heritage sites, including

4477-584: The Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30) . In June 1926, Zhang managed to capture Beijing, and rumors swirled that he was planning to proclaim himself emperor. Instead, a year later, with Kuomintang forces rapidly closing in, he combined his military forces with those of the other warlords, including Zhang Zongchang and Sun Chuanfang , into the National Pacification Army and fought against

4598-610: The National Defense Academy of Japan , states that "The 'Tanaka Memorial' never existed, but the Dalian conference of that year adopted resolutions that reflected these ideas." In the summer of 1927 (June 27 – July 7), Tanaka convened a "Far East Conference" with members of the Japanese Foreign Ministry , Army Ministry , Navy Ministry , and Finance Ministry . However, instead of ending with

4719-783: The Northern Expedition . At the same time, he proclaimed himself Generalissimo of the Republic of China, and thus led China's internationally recognized government as a dictator. However, the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek attacked his forces, and in May 1928, the Fengtian Army had to retreat towards Beijing. In addition, Japan applied pressure on Zhang to leave Beijing and to return to Manchuria and underscored that by bringing reinforcements to Tianjin . Zhang left Beijing on June 3, 1928. The next morning, his train reached

4840-524: The Northern and Southern dynasties period. After the Eastern Jin fell in 420, it continued to serve as the capital for the Southern dynasties of Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang and Chen . During this time, Jiankang was the international hub of East Asia. Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households. Assuming an average Nanjing household consisted of about 5.1 people,

4961-664: The October Revolution . The line of the Chinese Eastern Railway , which was under Russian control, ran through northern Manchuria and the land immediately on either side of the tracks was considered to be Russian territory. From 1917 to about 1924 the new Communist government in Moscow was having such difficulties establishing itself in Siberia that often it was not clear who was in charge of operating

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5082-553: The Presidential Palace , Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum and Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum . Nanjing is famous for human historical landscapes, mountains and waters such as Fuzimiao , Ming Palace , Chaotian Palace , Porcelain Tower , Drum Tower , Stone City , City Wall , Qinhuai River , Xuanwu Lake and Purple Mountain . Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library , Nanjing Museum and Jiangsu Art Museum. The city has

5203-589: The Qianlong Emperor , Jiangnan was fully divided into the present provinces of Anhui and Jiangsu . Separately, however, these provinces were reunited under the supervision of a new Viceroy of Liangjiang after 1723, whose seat was based in Jiangning. It was the site of a Qing Army garrison. It had been visited by the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors a number of times on their tours of the southern provinces. The 1842 Treaty of Nanking , which put an end to

5324-468: The Republic of China (1912–49) , jing ( 京 ; 'capital') was adopted as the abbreviation of Nanjing. Archaeological discovery shows that the so-called " Nanjing Man " lived more than 500,000 years ago. Zun , a kind of wine vessel, were found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing about 5000 years ago. About 7000 years ago, there was an agricultural civilization in the area that

5445-637: The Russo-Japanese War , they were hired by the Japanese Army as mercenaries. During the 1911 Revolution , Zhang initially fought against the revolutionaries, and after the foundation of the Republic of China supported the Beiyang government . Zhang founded the Fengtian clique and gradually expanded his Northeastern Army , which established his supremacy over the three northeastern provinces ( Fengtian , Jilin and Heilongjiang ). Zhang's government in Manchuria initiated important reforms and investments in agriculture and industry, resulting in good development. He

5566-405: The Southern Tang (937–75), one of the Ten Kingdoms ; the Ming dynasty when, for the first time, all of China was ruled from the city (1368–1421); and the Republic of China under the nationalist Kuomintang (1927–37, 1946–49) before its flight to Taiwan by Chiang Kai-Shek during the Chinese Civil War . The city also served as the seat of the rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1853–64) and

5687-414: The Stone City at the site of Jinling Yi, and renamed Moling to Jianye. Jianye later became the capital of the Eastern Wu dynasty during the Three Kingdoms period, after Sun Quan proclaimed himself emperor in 229, opening Nanjing's history as a state capital. By the time Wu was conquered by the Western Jin dynasty in 280, Jianye and its neighboring areas had been well cultivated, developing into one of

5808-428: The Tanaka Memorial as the document that was the Japanese plan for war with the United States. The Tanaka Memorial was depicted the same way in Know Your Enemy: Japan , also directed by Capra during the war. As presented in these movies, the five sequential steps to achieve Japan's goal of conquests are: Its authenticity is not accepted by scholars today, but the Tanaka Memorial was widely accepted as authentic in

5929-411: The fifth-largest scientific research output of any city in the world. As of 2024, it has been ranked as the world's second most prolific scientific research center in earth and environmental sciences and the world's third most prolific scientific research center in chemistry and physical sciences , according to the Nature Index . Nanjing, one of the nation's most important cities for over

6050-415: The island of Taiwan on December 10 where Taipei was proclaimed the temporary capital of the Republic of China. By late 1949, the PLA was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet and Hainan Island were left. Zhang Zuolin Zhang Zuolin (March 19, 1875 – June 4, 1928) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Manchuria from 1916 to 1928. He led

6171-424: The 1930s and 1940s because Japan's actions appeared to correspond with these plans. The authenticity seemed to be confirmed by the 1931 Mukden Incident , 1937 Second Sino-Japanese War , 1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol , 1940 Japanese invasion of French Indochina , the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , and the subsequent Pacific War . Historian Barak Kushner states: In 1940, Leon Trotsky published an account of how

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6292-411: The 3rd century to 1949, and has thus long been a major center of culture, education, research, politics, economy, transport networks and tourism, being the home to one of the world's largest inland ports . The city is also one of the fifteen sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China's administrative structure , enjoying jurisdictional and economic autonomy only slightly less than that of

6413-413: The December 1931 issue of Communist International magazine. It was later re-printed in book format. In 1939, Peter Fleming claimed that he had produced an "update" to the Tanaka Memorial , by writing an imaginary report about a secret Allied strategy conference which was attended by the Kuomintang's leader Chiang Kai-shek , and leaking it to the Japanese. This event proves that the British knew that

6534-413: The Drum Tower Hospital and the boys' school would be expanded by later missionaries to become the University of Nanking and Medical School. The old mission property became the No. 13 Middle School, the oldest continually-used school grounds in the city. The Xinhai Revolution led to the founding of the Republic of China in January 1912 with Sun Yat-sen as the first provisional president and Nanjing

6655-511: The Fengtian Army. The only pass at Shanhaiguan , where the Great Wall meets the sea, could easily be closed. In a time when the central government was barely able to pay the salaries of its civil servants , no more revenues were forwarded to Beijing . In 1922 Zhang took control of the only rail link, the Beijing–Shenyang Railway , north of the Great Wall and also kept tax revenues from this railroad. Only postal and customs revenues continued to be sent to Beijing, because they had been pledged to

6776-420: The Japanese gold yen, which was accepted throughout Korea and Manchuria. Much to the surprise of the Chinese, the new currency even gained in value against the gold yen, although Japanese businessmen claimed that it was not backed up by sufficient silver reserves. Wang then used the newly gained credibility to introduce another note, the Fengtian dollar , which was not convertible into silver anymore. However, it

6897-428: The Japanese), linking up with the Chinese Eastern Railway in Changchun . The land on either side of the railway tracks remained extraterritorial , now being controlled by the Japanese Kwantung Army . This army maintained 7,000-14,000 men in Manchuria, tolerating and being tolerated by the Fengtian Army , although Zhang kept up a war of words, playing on anti-Japanese sentiments in the Chinese public . Lu Zhankui ,

7018-407: The Manchus in late May 1645, the Hongguang Emperor fled Nanjing, and the imperial Ming Palace was looted by local residents. On June 6, Dodo's troops approached Nanjing, and the commander of the city's garrison, Zhao the Earl of Xincheng, promptly surrendered the city to them. The Manchus soon ordered all male residents of the city to shave their heads in the Manchu queue way . They requisitioned

7139-408: The Memorial is still in question. Because the initial edition of the Memorial was written in Chinese, some Japanese historians have attributed it to Chinese sources, probably either Chinese Nationalists or Chinese Communists. According to some claims, the document was forged by the Soviet Union , the Soviet Union forged the document in an attempt to trigger a war between China and Japan, a war which

7260-403: The Nanjing area. Hushu culture developed into Wu culture under the influence of the Shang and Zhou, who encroached from Central Plains. From the traditions, Taibo of Zhou came to Jiangnan and established the state of Wu during the 12th century BC. In 571 BC, the State of Chu established Tangyi in Liuhe. This is the oldest extant administrative establishment in Nanjing; as of 2024 it has

7381-518: The Official Bank of the Three Eastern Provinces, and became its general director. By this he tried to create a development bank and at the same time keep accurate records of military spending. After the disastrous defeat of 1922, Zhang had reorganized his Fengtian Army, started a training program, and bought new equipment, including mobile radios and machine guns. In the autumn of 1924, fighting broke out again in Central China . Zhang saw an opportunity to capture North China and Beijing and become head of

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7502-513: The Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" to

7623-458: The Russo-Japanese War, and took several photographs of him and his troops as well as writing an account of his journey. During the 1911 Xinhai Revolution some military commanders wanted to declare independence for Manchuria; but the pro-Manchu governor used Zhang's regiment to set up a "Manchurian People's Peacekeeping Council", intimidating would-be rebels and revolutionaries. For his efforts in preventing civil disturbance and revolution, Zhang

7744-411: The Soviet Union would exploit in the service of its interests. The two theories are not mutually exclusive, as the Chinese Communist Party was a member of the Comintern under control of the Soviet Union, and Soviet policy from the 1930s was to wage a propaganda war against Japanese expansionism. Also, the first translation of the Memorial into English was done by the Communist Party USA and published in

7865-433: The Tanaka Memorial was a forgery prior to World War II . While the Tanaka Memorial is frequently treated as if it is a real document in newspapers and school textbooks which are published in China, most western historians have reached a consensus that the document is a forgery. These sources contest the authenticity of the Memorial: These sources advocate the authenticity of the Memorial: Nanking Nanjing

7986-405: The Terrace empty, and the river flows on. Flourishing flowers of Wu Palace are buried beneath dark trails; Caps and gowns of Jin times all lie in ancient mounds. The Three-peaked Mountain lies half visible under the blue sky, The two-forked stream is separated by the White-Egret Isle in the middle. Clouds always block the sun, Chang'an cannot be seen and I grieve. — About

8107-742: The Yangtze, managed to push back the Fengtian Army again. By November, Zhang held only a small corner of north China, including a corridor connecting Beijing with Manchuria. Attacks on Beijing continued into the spring of 1926. Manchuria was placed under martial law again, and its economy disintegrated under the burden of the insatiable war machine. Old taxes were increased and new taxes invented. Zhang demanded that more paper money be printed , out of step with silver reserves . An extremely serious crisis erupted in November 1925, when Guo Songling revolted and ordered his troops to turn back and march on Shenyang. The Japanese brought in reinforcements to protect their interests in Manchuria, but Zhang managed to put down

8228-490: The Yongle Emperor was obliged to preserve its special status, at least in name. The "northern capital" came to be known as Beijing and the 'southern capital' as Nanjing ( 南京 ). Both controlled territories "directly administered" by the emperor and his staff, Beizhili in the north and Nanzhili in the south. The Hongxi Emperor wanted to restore Nanjing as the sole imperial capital and undertook preparations to do so. On February 24, 1425, he appointed Admiral Zheng He as

8349-631: The Zhili Army in what came to be known as the First Zhili–Fengtian War . Three-thousand troops had been killed and 7,000 wounded, and Zhang's units retreated to Shanhai Pass . Zhili forces were in control of Beijing and Zhang's image as a national leader had been destroyed and he reacted by declaring Manchuria independent from Beijing in May 1922. On June 22, Wang left Shenyang for Japanese-controlled Dalian , allegedly for treatment of an eye infection. From there he challenged Zhang by demanding restrictions to military spending and complete control over civil affairs. Zhang gave in, lifted martial law and agreed to

8470-429: The army, and they were used in the battles. By August 1925, the Fengtian Army controlled four large provinces within the Great Wall — Zhili (where Beijing was located but not Beijing itself), Shandong , Jiangsu and Anhui . One unit even marched as far south as the city of Shanghai . However, the military situation was so unstable that Sun Chuanfang , a Zhili clique warlord whose sphere of influence extended along

8591-408: The capital of the Republic of China, and this became internationally recognized once KMT forces took Beijing in 1928. The following decade is known as the Nanjing decade . During this decade, Nanjing was of symbolic and strategic importance. The Ming dynasty had made Nanjing a capital, the republic had been established there in 1912, and Sun Yat-sen 's provisional government had been there. Sun's body

8712-483: The central government. While most other warlord armies fought along the Yangtze River , Zhang attacked North China, thus beginning the Second Zhili–Fengtian War . In a surprise move, a Zhili commander, Feng Yuxiang , toppled Cao Kun and took control of Beijing. He shared power with Zhang, and both appointed the same Duan Qirui whom he had ousted in 1920. Zhang purchased 14 more FT tanks in 1924 and 1925 for

8833-529: The city or from superstitious fear of its geomantic properties . A monument to the huge human cost of some of the gigantic construction projects of the early Ming dynasty is the Yangshan Quarry (located some 15–20 km (9–12 mi) east of the walled city and Ming Xiaoling mausoleum), where a gigantic stele , cut on the orders of the Yongle Emperor, lies abandoned. As the center of

8954-611: The city had more than 1.4 million residents. A number of sculptural ensembles of that era, erected at the tombs of royals and other dignitaries, have survived (in various degrees of preservation) in Nanjing's northeastern and eastern suburbs, primarily in Qixia and Jiangning District . Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu (475–518), a brother of Emperor Wu of Liang . The phoenix birds once frolicked on Phoenix Terrace, The birds are gone,

9075-504: The commercial, cultural and political centers of China. Not long after the unification of China, the Western Jin collapsed under the weight of civil wars by eight princes and rebellions from the so-called " Five Barbarians " in the north. Jianye, renamed to Jiankang in 313 to avoid Emperor Min of Jin's taboo name , was safely isolated from the chaos and became a popular refuge for the northern nobles and wealthy families. In 318,

9196-589: The defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the Ming treasure fleet for the city's defense. Zheng He governed the city with three eunuchs for internal matters and two military noblemen for external matters, awaiting the Hongxi Emperor's return along with the military establishment from the north. The emperor died on May 29, 1425, before this could have taken place. The succeeding Xuande Emperor preferred to remain in Beijing, leaving it

9317-533: The document allegedly came to light. Soviet intelligence had obtained it from a high-placed mole in Tokyo but did not want to compromise their own security by publishing it openly, so they had leaked it through contacts that they had in the United States. Journalist and popular historian Edwin P. Hoyt wrote that the Tanaka Memorial was an accurate representation "of what Prime Minister Tanaka had said and what

9438-573: The empire, early-Ming Nanjing had worldwide connections. It was home of the admiral Zheng He , who went to sail the Pacific and Indian Oceans , and it was visited by foreign dignitaries, such as a king from Borneo ( 渤泥 ; Bóní ), who died during his visit to China in 1408. The Tomb of the King of Boni , with a spirit way and a tortoise stele , was discovered in Yuhuatai District (south of

9559-556: The former opulent capital Jinling (present-day Nanjing) in the poem Climbing Phoenix Terrace at Jinling by Li Bai of the Tang dynasty The period of division ended when the Sui dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town. The city was razed after the Sui took it over. It was renamed Shengzhou ( 昇州 ) in the Tang dynasty and resuscitated during

9680-720: The foundation of the lead article on the front page of the first edition of The Plain Truth magazine published by Herbert W. Armstrong in February of that year, although it had first appeared in the less widely circulated Communist International magazine in 1931. The Tanaka Memorial was depicted extensively by United States wartime propaganda as a sort of Japanese counterpart to Mein Kampf . The installments The Battle of China and Prelude to War of Frank Capra 's Academy Award -winning movie series Why We Fight describe

9801-436: The land was canceled for the first years. Most were sent to the interior of Manchuria, where they reclaimed land for agriculture, or worked in forestry or mines. Between 1924 and 1929 the amount of land under tillage increased from 20 million acres (81,000 km ) to 35 million acres (140,000 km ). Manchuria's economy boomed while chaos and uncertainty reigned in the rest of China. An especially ambitious project

9922-709: The late Tang. It was chosen as the capital and called Jinling ( 金陵 ) during the Southern Tang (937–976), which succeeded the state of Yang Wu . It was renamed Jiangning ( 江寧 , "Pacified Area of the Yangtze ") in the Northern Song and renamed Jiankang in the Southern Song . Jiankang's textile industry burgeoned and thrived during the Song despite the constant threat of foreign invasions from

10043-629: The military. In 1919 France had left Renault FT tanks in Vladivostok after the joint Allied intervention , and Zhang Zuolin soon incorporated them into the Manchurian Army. In the summer of 1920, Zhang made a foray into North China on the other side of the Great Wall, trying to topple Duan Qirui , the leading warlord of Beijing. He did this by supporting another warlord, Cao Kun , with troops and they successfully ousted Duan. As

10164-460: The most modern cities in China. In 1937, the Empire of Japan started a full-scale invasion of China after invading Manchuria in 1931, beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War (often considered a theater of World War II ). Their troops occupied Nanjing in December and carried out the systematic and brutal Nanjing Massacre (the "Rape of Nanjing"). The total death toll, including estimates made by

10285-403: The new central government named Zhang both military and civil governor of Liaoning, the essential components of a successful warlord . Zhang, a pragmatist, had always remained cordial with Puyi , the last Emperor of China , and had sent him a gift of £ 1,600 for his wedding as a token of loyalty. Zhang sought good relations with Puyi in order to increase his power and cement his legitimacy if

10406-687: The north by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty . The court of Da Chu , a short-lived puppet state established by the Jurchens, and the court of Song were once in the city. The Southern Song were eventually destroyed by the Mongols ; during their rule as the Yuan dynasty , the city's status as a hub of the textile industry was further consolidated. According to Odoric of Pordenone , Chilenfu (Nanjing) had 360 stone bridges, which were finer than anywhere else in

10527-711: The now-exiled Beiyang Government, by his eldest son, Zhang Xueliang , the so-called "Young Marshal." The government-in-exile would not last very long since by July, Beiyang had reached an armistice with the Kuomintang ; and by the end of the year, the Northeast Flag Replacement occurred, nominally reunifying China under the Kuomintang banner. Zhang had six wives and 14 children (eight sons and six daughters), among which include his son and successor, Zhang Xueliang , as well as Zhang Xueming . He

10648-755: The outskirts of Shenyang. Here the line passed through the Japanese-operated South Manchuria Railroad . In what came to be known as the Huanggutun incident , Colonel Kōmoto Daisaku, an officer of the Japanese Kwantung Army , planted a bomb along a railroad bridge, which exploded when Zhang's train passed it; mortally wounded, Zhang died a few days later. At the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal in 1946, Okada Keisuke testified that Zhang

10769-503: The outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate , which was the beginning of the construction of the main city of Nanjing. In 333 BC, Chu defeated Yue and built Jinling Yi ( 金陵邑 ) on in the western part of Nanjing. It was the earliest administrative construction in the main city of Nanjing. The name of Jinling comes from this. In 210 BC, the First Emperor of Qin visited the east and changed Jinling City to Moling ( 秣陵 ). The area

10890-493: The primary and de facto capital and Nanjing as permanent secondary or reserve capital. Owing to the continuing importance of the ancestral injunctions , however, Nanjing was designated in official documents as the actual capital and Beijing as a temporary capital from 1425 to 1441. In 1441, the Yingzong Emperor ordered the "provisional" ( 行在 ) prefix removed from Beijing's government seals and further ordered that

11011-612: The production of a master plan for world domination, the Conference ended with a rough consensus that Japan should support the Kuomintang government of China in its war against the Chinese Communists , as long as the Japanese could convince General Zhang Zuolin to consolidate his base into a virtually autonomous Manchuria , which would serve as a buffer state , and eventually would fall under Japanese domination. It

11132-616: The railway on the Russian side. Still, Zhang avoided a showdown and after 1924 the Soviets re-established their dominance over the railroad. The situation's precariousness was demonstrated by an outbreak of pneumonic plague in Hailar , a town at the western end of the Chinese Eastern Railway , in October 1920. Chinese troops were present in great number and turned railway quarantine into

11253-676: The rank of Lieutenant-General. In 1913 Yuan attempted to move Zhang away from Manchuria by having him transferred to Mongolia , but Zhang reminded Yuan of his successful efforts to keep local order, and refused. In 1915, when it became clear that Yuan intended to declare himself emperor, Zhang was one of the few officials who supported him. Besides political opportunism, Zhang saw Yuan as a central, unifying, and legitimate figure. Furthermore, Yuan had promoted him to military governor of Fengtian to gain his support. Zhang's main rival for power in Manchuria, Zhang Xiluan , had been asked about Yuan's ambitions, and suggested to Yuan that he "think about it

11374-407: The rebellion, increasing his own power. He intervened and took control of China's northernmost province, Heilongjiang , after a rebellion there forced the local governor to flee. Because the governor of Jilin province had been linked to the attempt to restore the monarchy, Zhang had allies from Jilin successfully agitate for the governor's dismissal in Beijing. By 1918 Zhang's control of Manchuria

11495-480: The revolt in December. Even more seriously, Wang Yongjiang , now the civil governor of Manchuria, realized that his work of nine years had been in vain. He left Shenyang in February 1926 and resigned. Before his death from kidney failure on November 1, 1927, Wang, totally disillusioned, did not reply when Zhang asked him to return. Instead, Wang severed all connections with Zhang. With the loss of his financial expert, Zhang took drastic action. In March 1926 he appointed

11616-540: The ruling prince in Jiankang, Sima Rui proclaimed himself the new emperor and reestablished the dynasty as the Eastern Jin dynasty . This marked the first time a Chinese dynastic capital was moved from the north to southern China , as the north came under the rule of the Sixteen Kingdoms . Jiankang was the centre of administration in the south for more than two and a half centuries, even as China entered

11737-540: The ships which had brought them. Under the Qing dynasty from 1645 to 1911, Nanjing returned to its previous name Jiangning . At first, it continued to administer the territory of Nanzhili under the name Jiangnan ("Area South of the Yangtze") but this administration was soon broken up into "Right" and "Left" governments based in Suzhou and Jiangning respectively. After a series of reorganizations, at some point under

11858-455: The southern imperial administration would henceforth be required to prefix "Nanjing" to their own seals to distinguish them. Besides the city wall, other Ming-era structures in the city included the famous Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum and Porcelain Tower , although the latter was destroyed by the Taipings in the 19th century either to prevent a hostile faction from using it to observe and shell

11979-411: The spelling as "Nanjing". During the Qing dynasty , the city was called Jiangning ( 江寧 ; Kiang-ning ), whose first character jiang ( Chinese : 江 ; pinyin : jiāng ; lit. 'river', i.e. the Yangtze ) is the former part of the name Jiangsu and second character ning ( 寧 , simplified form 宁 ; 'peace') is the shortened name of Nanjing. When it was the capital of

12100-767: The supernationalists had been saying for months." Iris Chang adds that the Japanese government at that time was so faction-ridden that it would have been impossible to carry out such a plan in any case. Historian Meirion Harries wrote that the Tanaka Memorial "was one of the most successful 'dirty tricks' of the twentieth century – a bogus document so brilliantly conceived that thirty years later Westerners were still taken in by it". Likewise, historian William G. Beasley states that "the nature of this document, as published variously in English and Chinese, does not carry conviction as to its authenticity". Dr. Haruo Tohmatsu, Professor of Diplomacy and War History of International Relations at

12221-403: The time). In 1925 his personal fortune was estimated at over 18 million yuan (roughly $ 2.6 million). His power rested on the Fengtian Army , which was composed of about 100,000 men in 1922 and almost triple that number by the end of the decade. It had obtained large stocks of weapons left over from World War I and included naval units, an air force and an armaments industry. Zhang integrated

12342-490: The victorious foreign powers after the failed Boxer Rebellion of 1900, and Zhang feared their intervention. It was proposed that Zhang Zuolin's domain (the "Three Eastern Provinces") take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogda Khan and Bodo in 1922 after pro-Soviet Mongolian Communists seized control of Outer Mongolia. Manchuria shared a long border with Russia , which had been weakened militarily after

12463-601: The walled city) in 1958, and has been restored. Over two centuries after the removal of the capital to Beijing, Nanjing was destined to become the capital of a Ming emperor one more time. After the fall of Beijing to Li Zicheng 's rebel forces and then to the Manchu -led Qing dynasty in the spring of 1644, the Ming prince Zhu Yousong was enthroned in Nanjing in June 1644 as the Hongguang Emperor. His short reign

12584-557: The wonders of the world. Both the Qing viceroy and the Taiping king resided in buildings that would later be known as the Presidential Palace . When Qing forces led by Zeng Guofan retook the city in 1864, a massive slaughter occurred in the city with over 100,000 estimated to have committed suicide or fought to the death. Since the Taiping Rebellion began, Qing forces allowed no rebels speaking its dialect to surrender. This

12705-570: The world. It was well populated and had a large craft industry. After Zhu Yuanzhang (known from his era as the Hongwu Emperor ) overthrew the Yuan and established the Ming dynasty , he renamed the city Yingtian ( 應天 ) , rebuilt it, and made it the dynastic capital in 1368, overseeing the surrounding areas under a special administration. The Hongwu Emperor constructed a 48 km (30 mi) long city wall around Yingtian , as well as

12826-549: Was a Buddhist . A pragmatist, Zhang supported different movements depending on what would gain him the most power and legitimacy, and even supported the restoration of the Qing dynasty in 1917. His nicknames include the "Old Marshal" (大帥, P: Dàshuài , W: Ta-shuai ), "Rain Marshal" (雨帥, P: Yǔshuài , W: Yü-shuai ) and "Mukden Tiger". The American press referred to him as "Marshal Chang Tso-lin, Tuchun of Manchuria". There are numerous movies, TV shows and radio shows depicting

12947-511: Was a small amount of veterinary science . His grandfather had come to the northeast after fleeing a famine in Zhili (modern Hebei ) in 1821. As a child, Zhang was known by the nickname "Pimple." He spent his early youth hunting, fishing and brawling. He hunted hares in the Manchurian countryside to help feed his family. In appearance he was thin and short. Zhang asserted that he was

13068-403: Was accepted by the government for the payment of taxes, a sign of faith in its own currency. Next, Wang turned to the chaotic tax collecting system. Because of his former job, he was well acquainted with the abuses of the system and introduced a number of controls. The provincial government had also invested government funds in various enterprises, many of which were poorly managed. Wang ordered

13189-524: Was assassinated by officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army . He was succeeded in Manchuria by his son, Zhang Xueliang , who recognized the Nationalist government . Zhang was born in 1875 in Haicheng , a county in southern Fengtian province (modern Liaoning ) in northeastern China, to poor parents. He received little formal education , and the only non-military trade that he learned in his lifetime

13310-719: Was brought and placed in a grand mausoleum to cement Chiang's legitimacy. Chiang was born in the neighboring province of Zhejiang and the general area had strong popular support for him. In 1927, the Nationalist government proposed a comprehensive planning proposal, the Capital Plan ( 首都計劃 ), to reconstruct the war-torn city of Nanjing into a modern capital. It was a decade of extraordinary growth with an enormous amount of construction. A lot of government buildings, residential houses, and modern public infrastructures were built. During this boom, Nanjing reputedly became one of

13431-618: Was complete, except for the small areas held by the Japanese Empire . A Tianjin -based honghuzi leader negotiated with Zhang Zuolin. In 1920 Zhang was the supreme ruler of Manchuria. The central government acknowledged this by appointing him Governor-General of the Three Eastern Provinces. He began to surround himself in luxury, building a chateau-style home near Shenyang , and had at least five wives (an accepted practice of any powerful or wealthy Chinese at

13552-464: Was described by later historians as the first reign of the so-called Southern Ming dynasty . Zhu Yousong, however, fared a lot worse than his ancestor Zhu Yuanzhang three centuries earlier. Beset by factional conflicts, his regime could not offer effective resistance to Qing forces, when the Qing army, led by the Manchu prince Dodo approached Jiangnan the next spring. Days after Yangzhou fell to

13673-466: Was murdered because the Kwantung Army was infuriated by his failure to stop Chiang's army, which was backed by Moscow, Tokyo's strategic rival. For two weeks, Zhang's death was kept secret while the scramble for power was decided. That is why according to an announcement issued by the Fengtian Army, he officially died on June 21, 1928. Zhang was succeeded, both as warlord of Manchuria and head of

13794-675: Was named the Vice Minister of Military Affairs. On January 1, 1912 Sun Yat-sen became the first President of the Republic of China in Nanjing . Yuan Shikai , operating out of Beijing , sent other northern military commanders a series of telegrams, advising them to oppose Sun's administration. To gain Zhang's loyalty, Yuan sent him a large shipment of military provisions; Zhang sent Yuan an enormous (and costly) ginseng root in return to symbolize their friendship. Zhang then murdered

13915-542: Was one of two historically significant instances of systematic civilian massacres in Nanjing, the other one was the Houjing Disturbance of the 6th century. The New York Methodist Mission Society's superintendent Virgil Hart arrived in Nanjing in 1881. After some time, he succeeded in buying land near the city's Southern Gate and Confucian Temple to build the city's first Methodist church, Western hospital and boys' school. The hospital would later be unified with

14036-404: Was renamed Jiankang . Nanjing is also called Jincheng ( 金城 , Golden City), derived from Jinling City. The name Nanjing , which means "southern capital", was officially designated for the city during the Ming dynasty , about six hundred years later. In English, the spelling Nanking was traditional until pinyin , developed in the 1950s and internationally adopted in the 1980s, standardized

14157-483: Was selected as its new capital. However, the Qing Empire controlled large regions to the north, so the revolutionaries asked Yuan Shikai to replace Sun as president in exchange for the abdication of Puyi , the last emperor. Yuan demanded the capital be moved to Beijing (closer to his power base). In 1927, the Kuomintang (KMT; Nationalist Party) under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek again established Nanjing as

14278-532: Was successively part of Kuaiji , Zhang and Danyang prefectures in Qin and Han dynasty, and part of Yangzhou region which was established as the nation's 13 supervisory and administrative regions in the 5th year of Yuanfeng in Han dynasty (106   BC). Nanjing was later the capital city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang . Six Dynasties

14399-529: Was supported by the Japanese, who viewed him as best representing their economic interests. Seeking to extend his power to northern China, Zhang fought wars against the Anhui and Zhili cliques , after which he became the most powerful figure in the Beiyang government and proclaimed himself Generalissimo in 1927. Zhang's troops were defeated by the Kuomintang 's Northern Expedition in 1928. During his retreat, he

14520-466: Was the value of the Fengtian dollar (yuan), which had started on parity with the Japanese gold yen, but by February 1928, 40 yuan was equivalent to 1 gold yen. In the winter of 1926, Manchuria's economy collapsed. Workers went on strike, and hungry immigrants flooded back into Shenyang because they could not find any work. Zhang provided weapons to anti- Guominjun Muslim rebels led by Ma Tingrang during

14641-525: Was to break the Japanese monopoly on cotton textiles by creating a large mill which, much to Japan's sorrow, succeeded. The government also invested in other enterprises, among them quite a number of Sino-Japanese companies. During this time, the Fengtian Army successfully repressed Manchuria's many bandits. Various railway lines were built, among them the Shenyang- Hailong line, which opened in 1925. In 1924 Wang amalgamated three regional banks into

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