Misplaced Pages

#842157

58-397: There are nine Tangale vowels. Each occurs in a contrastive long and short form. There are up to 34 consonant phonemes in the language, including implosive stops, prenasalized stops, and labialized consonants. The language uses two levels of contrastive tone. A prominent feature of Tangale is vowel harmony . Suffixes control whether all the vowels in a word are open or close. Nouns have

116-690: A back). The complex one is concerned with the high vowels i, ü, ı, u and has both [±front] and [±rounded] features ( i front unrounded vs ü front rounded and ı back unrounded vs u back rounded). The close-mid vowels ö, o are not involved in vowel harmony processes. Turkish has two classes of vowels – front and back . Vowel harmony states that words may not contain both front and back vowels. Therefore, most grammatical suffixes come in front and back forms, e.g. Türkiye' de "in Turkey" but Almanya' da "in Germany". In addition, there

174-419: A phonological word – must share certain distinctive features (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, meaning that the affected vowels do not need to be immediately adjacent, and there can be intervening segments between the affected vowels. Generally one vowel will trigger a shift in other vowels, either progressively or regressively, within the domain, such that the affected vowels match

232-460: A tongue root harmony and a rounding harmony. In particular, the tongue root harmony involves the vowels: /a, ʊ, ɔ/ (+RTR) and /i, u, e, o/ (-RTR). The vowel /i/ is phonetically similar to the -RTR vowels. However, it is largely transparent to vowel harmony. Rounding harmony only affects the open vowels, /e, o, a, ɔ/ . Some sources refer to the primary harmonization dimension as pharyngealization or palatalness (among others), but neither of these

290-514: A "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between goose/geese may be thought of as goose being the basic form where -ee- is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for oo . This usage of the term morpheme (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models. Ablaut reduplication , or ablaut-motivated compounding ,

348-437: A basic discontinuous root g-se that is filled out with an infix -oo- "(singular)" or -ee- "(plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes -oo- and -ee- would be exceedingly rare. Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather

406-602: A different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. -géésh , -gizh , -gish ): Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and stress , may be found in alternations. For example, Vietnamese has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally: Albanian uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and grammatical gender on nouns: English has alternating stress patterns that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed). This tends to be

464-405: A few native modern Turkish words that do not follow the rule (such as anne "mother" or kardeş "sibling" which used to obey vowel harmony in their older forms, ana and karındaş , respectively). However, in such words, suffixes nevertheless harmonize with the final vowel; thus annes i – "his/her mother", and voleybolc u – "volleyballer". In some loanwords the final vowel

522-416: A front/back system, but there is also a system of rounding harmony, which strongly resembles that of Kazakh. Turkish has a 2-dimensional vowel harmony system, where vowels are characterised by two features: [±front] and [±rounded]. There are two sets of vocal harmony systems: a simple one and a complex one. The simple one is concerned with the low vowels e, a and has only the [±front] feature ( e front vs

580-475: A fully developed system. The one exception is Uzbek , which has lost its vowel harmony due to extensive Persian influence; however, its closest relative, Uyghur , has retained Turkic vowel harmony. Azerbaijani 's system of vowel harmony has both front/back and rounded/unrounded vowels. Tatar has no neutral vowels. The vowel é is found only in loanwords . Other vowels also could be found in loanwords, but they are seen as Back vowels. Tatar language also has

638-409: A given alternation will depend on the language. Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European ablaut (English s i ng-s a ng ) and Germanic umlaut ( g oo se-g ee se ), mentioned above, are well attested examples. Another example is from Dinka : The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In Athabaskan languages , such as Navajo , verbs have series of stems where

SECTION 10

#1732771818843

696-409: A masculine or feminine gender, but this is not marked on the noun. The different in gender is only seen in the agreement system (covert gender). Nouns are not marked for plural, except for the word "child" which has an irregular plural form. A suffix -i marks definite nouns. Nouns can also take a possessive suffix, which indexes the possessor of the noun (possessor agreement). Verbs are bound roots of

754-512: A rounding harmony superimposed over a backness harmony. Even among languages with vowel harmony, not all vowels need to participate in the vowel conversions; these vowels are termed neutral . Neutral vowels may be opaque and block harmonic processes or they may be transparent and not affect them. Intervening consonants are also often transparent. Finally, languages that do have vowel harmony often allow for lexical disharmony , or words with mixed sets of vowels even when an opaque neutral vowel

812-403: A rounding harmony, but it is not represented in writing. O and ö could be written only in the first syllable, but vowels they mark could be pronounced in the place where ı and e are written. Kazakh 's system of vowel harmony is primarily a front/back system, but there is also a system of rounding harmony that is not represented by the orthography. Kyrgyz 's system of vowel harmony is primarily

870-465: A specific vowel alternation originates. It is also important when taking a synchronic ( descriptive ) perspective on old Germanic languages such as Old English , as umlaut was still a very regular and productive process at the time. When taking a synchronic perspective on modern languages, however, both processes appear very similar. For example, the alternations seen in sing/sang/sung and foot/feet both appear to be morphologically conditioned (e.g.

928-485: A word-final coda. They also have an alternate form derived by total reduplication. Ideophones only carry low tone. The pronominal systems distinguishes 8 categories: three persons, singular & plural, and a gender distinction in second and third person singular forms. There are three types of independent (or absolute) pronouns. Subject pronouns also have three forms which are distinguished by their use in different TAMs. Object and indirect object pronominals are suffixed to

986-424: Is a process that dates back to Proto-Indo-European times, occurs in all Indo-European languages, and refers to (phonologically) unpredictable vowel alternations of a specific nature. From an Indo-European perspective, it typically appears as a variation between o , e , and no vowel, although various sound changes result in different vowel alternations appearing in different daughter languages. Umlaut , meanwhile,

1044-562: Is a process that is particular to the Germanic languages and refers to a variation between back vowels and front vowels that was originally phonologically predictable, and was caused by the presence of an /i/ or /j/ in the syllable following the modified vowel. From a diachronic (historical) perspective, the distinction between ablaut and umlaut is very important, particularly in the Germanic languages, as it indicates where and how

1102-418: Is a secondary rule that i and ı in suffixes tend to become ü and u respectively after rounded vowels, so certain suffixes have additional forms. This gives constructions such as Türkiye' dir "it is Turkey", kapı dır "it is the door", but gün dür "it is the day", karpuz dur "it is the watermelon". Not all suffixes obey vowel harmony perfectly. In the suffix -(i)yor ,

1160-502: Is a type of word formation of "expressives" (such as onomatopoeia or ideophones ), in which words are formed by reduplication of a base and alternation of the internal vowel. The pattern of vowel alternation in English follows a front to back vowel order, which among clipped vowels means a subset of /ɪ/ > /ɛ/ > /æ/ > /ʌ/ > /ɒ/ > /ʊ/ , as in: And partially in eeny, meeny, miny, moe . In many Turkic languages

1218-676: Is an a , o or u and thus looks like a back vowel, but is phonetically actually a front vowel, and governs vowel harmony accordingly. An example is the word saat , meaning "hour" or "clock", a loanword from Arabic. Its plural is sa a tl e r . This is not truly an exception to vowel harmony itself; rather, it is an exception to the rule that a denotes a front vowel. Disharmony tends to disappear through analogy, especially within loanwords; e.g. Hüsnü (a man's name) < earlier Hüsni , from Arabic husnî ; Müslüman "Moslem, Muslim (adj. and n.)" < Ottoman Turkish müslimân , from Persian mosalmân . Tuvan has one of

SECTION 20

#1732771818843

1276-660: Is an alternation of vowel (quality) within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional ). Apophony is exemplified in English as the internal vowel alternations that produce such related words as The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (e.g. sing/sang/sung ), transitivity ( rise/raise ), part of speech ( sing/song ), or grammatical number ( goose/geese ). That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical suffixes (an external modification ). Compare

1334-720: Is called dominant ). This is fairly common among languages with vowel harmony and may be seen in the Hungarian dative suffix: The dative suffix has two different forms -nak/-nek . The -nak form appears after the root with back vowels ( o and a are back vowels). The -nek form appears after the root with front vowels ( ö and e are front vowels). Vowel harmony often involves dimensions such as In many languages, vowels can be said to belong to particular sets or classes, such as back vowels or rounded vowels. Some languages have more than one system of harmony. For instance, Altaic languages are proposed to have

1392-695: Is closely pronounced as the Finnish front vowel 'ä' [æ] . 7 out of the 10 local dialects have the vowel ë [e] which has never been part of the Hungarian alphabet, and thus is not used in writing. Unrounded front vowels (or Intermediate or neutral vowels) can occur together with either back vowels (e.g. r é p a carrot, k o cs i car) or rounded front vowels (e.g. tető , tündér ), but rounded front vowels and back vowels can occur together only in words of foreign origins (e.g. sofőr = chauffeur, French word for driver). The basic rule

1450-543: Is not involved. Van der Hulst & van de Weijer (1995) point to two such situations: polysyllabic trigger morphemes may contain non-neutral vowels from opposite harmonic sets and certain target morphemes simply fail to harmonize. Many loanwords exhibit disharmony. For example, Turkish vakit , ('time' [from Arabic waqt ]); * vak ı t would have been expected. There are three classes of vowels in Korean : positive, negative, and neutral. These categories loosely follow

1508-463: Is phonologically predictable). Ambiguity can be avoided by using alternative terms ( apophony , gradation , alternation , internal modification for ablaut ; vowel harmony for umlaut ) for the broader sense of the words. Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as affixation . An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in German : Here

1566-451: Is reconstructed also for Proto-Samoyedic . Hungarian , like its distant relative Finnish, has the same system of front , back , and intermediate (neutral) vowels but is more complex than the one in Finnish, and some vowel harmony processes. The basic rule is that words including at least one back vowel get back vowel suffixes ( kar ba – in(to) the arm), while words excluding back vowels get front vowel suffixes ( kéz be – in(to)

1624-491: Is technically correct. Likewise, referring to ±RTR as the sole defining feature of vowel categories in Mongolian is not fully accurate either. In any case, the two vowel categories differ primarily with regards to tongue root position, and ±RTR is a convenient and fairly accurate descriptor for the articulatory parameters involved. Turkic languages inherit their systems of vowel harmony from Proto-Turkic , which already had

1682-597: Is that words including at least one back vowel take back vowel suffixes (e.g. répában in a carrot, kocsiban in a car), while words excluding back vowels usually take front vowel suffixes (except for words including only the vowels i or í , for which there is no general rule, e.g. lisztet , hidat ). Some other rules and guidelines to consider: Grammatical suffixes in Hungarian can have one, two, three, or four forms: An example on basic numerals: Vowel harmony occurred in Southern Mansi . In

1740-403: Is the vowel fronting that produces such related words as f oo t > f ee t or str o ng > str e ngth. The difference in the vowels results from the influence of an / i / , / iː / or / j / (which in most cases has since been lost) at the end of the word causing the stem vowel to be pulled forward. Some weak verbs show umlaut in the present tense, with the past tense representing

1798-401: Is used in two different senses. In the first sense, it refers to any type of long distance assimilatory process of vowels, either progressive or regressive . When used in this sense, the term vowel harmony is synonymous with the term metaphony . In the second sense, vowel harmony refers only to progressive vowel harmony (beginning-to-end). For regressive harmony, the term umlaut

Tangale language - Misplaced Pages Continue

1856-501: Is used. In this sense, metaphony is the general term while vowel harmony and umlaut are both sub-types of metaphony. The term umlaut is also used in a different sense to refer to a type of vowel gradation . This article will use "vowel harmony" for both progressive and regressive harmony. Harmony processes are "long-distance" in the sense that the assimilation involves sounds that are separated by intervening segments (usually consonant segments). In other words, harmony refers to

1914-460: The o is invariant, while the i changes according to the preceding vowel; for example sön ü y o r – "he/she/it fades". Likewise, in the suffix -(y)ken , the e is invariant: Roma'dayk e n – "When in Rome"; and so is the i in the suffix -(y)ebil : inanıl a b i lir – "credible". The suffix -ki exhibits partial harmony, never taking a back vowel but allowing only

1972-506: The Afroasiatic languages is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant gemination (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of Modern Standard Arabic , based on the root k–t–b 'write' (the symbol ⟨ ː ⟩ indicates gemination on the preceding consonant): Other analyses of these languages consider

2030-555: The Khanty language , vowel harmony occurs in the Eastern dialects, and affects both inflectional and derivational suffixes. The Vakh-Vasyugan dialect has a particularly extensive system of vowel harmony: Trigger vowels occur in the first syllable of a word, and control the backness of the entire word. Target vowels are affected by vowel harmony and are arranged in seven front-back pairs of similar height and roundedness, which are assigned

2088-422: The alternation appears in the plural or past tense, but not the singular or present tense) and phonologically unpredictable. By analogy, descriptive linguists discussing synchronic grammars sometimes employ the terms ablaut and umlaut , using ablaut to refer to morphological vowel alternation generally (which is unpredictable phonologically) and umlaut to refer to any type of regressive vowel harmony (which

2146-469: The alternation involves spirantization and palatalization : Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations. In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as s i ng, s a ng, s u ng, and s o ng. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European language ) of the vowel e with

2204-701: The archiphonemes A, O, U, I, Ɪ, Ʊ. The vowels /e/ , /œ/ and /ɔ/ appear only in the first syllable of a word, and are thus strictly trigger vowels. All other vowel qualities may act in both roles. Vowel harmony is lost in the Northern and Southern dialects, as well as in the Surgut dialect of Eastern Khanty. Vowel gradation In linguistics , apophony (also known as ablaut , ( vowel ) gradation , ( vowel ) mutation , alternation , internal modification , stem modification , stem alternation , replacive morphology , stem mutation , or internal inflection )

2262-419: The assimilation of sounds that are not adjacent to each other. For example, a vowel at the beginning of a word can trigger assimilation in a vowel at the end of a word. The assimilation occurs across the entire word in many languages. This is represented schematically in the following diagram: In the diagram above, the V a (type-a vowel) causes the following V b (type-b vowel) to assimilate and become

2320-421: The case with words in English that came from Latin: Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic affixes , which are known, variously, as suprafixes , superfixes , or simulfixes . Consonant alternation is commonly known as consonant mutation or consonant gradation . Bemba indicates causative verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here

2378-421: The environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English goose/geese and breath/breathe . Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including vowels , consonants , prosodic elements (such as tone , syllable length ), and even smaller features, such as nasality (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used inflectionally or derivationally . The particular function of

Tangale language - Misplaced Pages Continue

2436-549: The following segmental shapes: CVC-, CVːC-, CV(m)CC-, and CVCː-. Verbs root can be marked for verbal plurality in nine different ways including reduplication, suffixation, infixation and devoicing. A subclass of about 30 verbs have shorter roots with only one consonant. Verbs stems are marked with one of nine tense-aspect-mood (TAM) suffixes: In addition, verbs in some TAM can take an Altrilocal-Ventive or Distance suffix. Ideophones are an "emotional-expressive" word class. Morphologically, ideophones are typically disyllabic and have

2494-400: The following: The vowel alternation between i and a indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair sing/sang . Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel a just as the past tense is indicated on the verb jump with the past tense suffix -ed . Likewise, the plural suffix -s on the word books has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel ee in

2552-684: The front (positive) and mid (negative) vowels. Middle Korean had strong vowel harmony; however, this rule is no longer observed strictly in modern Korean. In modern Korean, it is only applied in certain cases such as onomatopoeia , adjectives , adverbs , conjugation , and interjections . The vowel ㅡ ( eu ) is considered a partially neutral and a partially negative vowel. There are other traces of vowel harmony in modern Korean: many native Korean words tend to follow vowel harmony, such as 사람 ( saram , 'person') and 부엌 ( bu-eok , 'kitchen'). 양성모음 (Yangseong moeum) 음성모음 (eumseong moeum) 중성모음 (jungseong moeum) Mongolian exhibits both

2610-562: The front-voweled variant -kü : dünk ü – "belonging to yesterday"; yarınk i – "belonging to tomorrow". Most Turkish words do not only have vowel harmony for suffixes, but also internally. However, there are many exceptions. Compound words are considered separate words with respect to vowel harmony: vowels do not have to harmonize between members of the compound (thus forms like bu | gün "this|day" = "today" are permissible). Vowel harmony does not apply for loanwords , as in otobüs – from French "autobus". There are also

2668-415: The hand). Single-vowel words which have only the neutral vowels ( i , í or é ) are unpredictable, but e takes a front-vowel suffix. One essential difference in classification between Hungarian and Finnish is that standard Hungarian (along with 3 out of 10 local dialects) does not observe the difference between Finnish 'ä' [æ] and 'e' [e]  – the Hungarian front vowel 'e' [ɛ]

2726-571: The language. In 1920 the Gospel of Luke was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society followed by Ruth and Jonah in 1922, then Acts in 1922, the Gospel of Matthew in 1927, Romans in 1928, the epistles of Paul in 1929 and then the New Testament in 1932. Vowel harmony In phonology , vowel harmony is a phonological rule in which the vowels of a given domain – typically

2784-473: The most complete systems of vowel harmony among the Turkic languages. Persian is a language which includes various types of regressive and progressive vowel harmony in different words and expressions. In Persian, progressive vowel harmony only applies to prepositions/post-positions when attached to pronouns. In Persian, regressive vowel harmony, some features spread from the triggering non-initial vowel to

2842-454: The original vowel: bought > buy ( / ɔː / > / aɪ / ). Hundreds of similar examples can be found in English, German, Dutch and other languages. Germanic a-mutation is a process analogous to umlaut, but involving the influence of a low vowel such as /ɑ/ causing a high vowel in the stem to lower. In Indo-European historical linguistics the terms ablaut and umlaut refer to different phenomena and are not interchangeable. Ablaut

2900-416: The patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as transfixes (sometimes considered simulfixes or suprafixes ). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of morphological templates or morpheme "skeletons". It would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of goose/geese could be explained as

2958-499: The relevant feature of the trigger vowel. Common phonological features that define the natural classes of vowels involved in vowel harmony include vowel backness , vowel height , nasalization , roundedness , and advanced and retracted tongue root . Vowel harmony is found in many agglutinative languages. The given domain of vowel harmony taking effect often spans across morpheme boundaries, and suffixes and prefixes will usually follow vowel harmony rules. The term vowel harmony

SECTION 50

#1732771818843

3016-406: The same type of vowel (and thus they become, metaphorically, "in harmony"). The vowel that causes the vowel assimilation is frequently termed the trigger while the vowels that assimilate (or harmonize ) are termed targets . When the vowel triggers lie within the root or stem of a word and the affixes contain the targets, this is called stem-controlled vowel harmony (the opposite situation

3074-538: The singular/plural distinction is indicated through umlaut and additionally by a suffix -er in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a -ren suffix in the plural and a -en suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation: Chechen features this as well: A more complicated example comes from Chickasaw where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with prefixation ( ak- ) and infixation ( -'- ): The nonconcatenative morphology of

3132-528: The target vowel in the previous syllable. The application and non-application of this backness harmony which can also be considered rounding harmony. Many, though not all, Uralic languages show vowel harmony between front and back vowels. Vowel harmony is often hypothesized to have existed in Proto-Uralic , though its original scope remains a matter of discussion. Vowel harmony is found in Nganasan and

3190-544: The verb. The possessive suffix (or possessor agreement suffix) attaches to nouns and indexes the possessor following the same categories as other pronominals. A reflexive pronoun is formed by the word kɪɪ with a possessive suffix. Nominal and verbal predicates are negated by what is described as a suffix -m . J.S.Hall of the Sudan Interior Mission worked with the Tangale people and created literature in

3248-445: The vowel o or with no vowel. To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of verbs , called strong verbs , in which the vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical tense - aspect . As the examples above show, a change in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. Some of the verbs also have a suffix in the past participle form. In Indo-European linguistics, umlaut

3306-519: The vowel alternates (sometimes with an added suffix ) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, vowel length , nasality , and/or tone . For example, the verb stem kaah/-ką́ 'to handle an open container' has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. -kaah , -kááh , -kaał , -kááł , -ka’ , -ká , -ką́ ). Another verb stem | -géésh/-gizh 'to cut' has

3364-437: The word geese (where ee alternates with oo in the pair goose/geese ). Consonants, too, can alternate in ways that are used grammatically. An example is the pattern in English of verb-noun pairs with related meanings but differing in voicing of a postvocalic consonant: Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to phonological assimilation that are later grammaticalized (or morphologized) when

#842157