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126-567: The Tangier International Zone ( Arabic : منطقة طنجة الدولية Minṭaqat Ṭanja ad-Dawliyya ; French : Zone internationale de Tanger ; Spanish : Zona Internacional de Tánger ) was a 382 km (147 sq mi) international zone centered on the city of Tangier , Morocco, which existed from 1925 until its reintegration into independent Morocco in 1956, with interruption during the Spanish occupation of Tangier (1940–1945) , and special economic status extended until early 1960. Surrounded on

252-539: A Sanitary Council ( French : conseil sanitaire ), chaired by the envoys of the represented nations on a rotating basis in the name of the Makhzen . In the early 1860s, the foreign nations for the creation of the Cape Spartel lighthouse  [ fr ] , inaugurated in 1864. In 1879, a Dahir of Sultan Hassan I created Tangier's Hygiene Commission ( French : commission d'hygiène ), which coexisted with

378-430: A battleground. Mawlay Hassan I, who was on campaign sent letters calling for the pacification of the city. Shortly after, the hated tax collectors were withdrawn, and the rebellion halted. The tax collectors soon reappeared, leading to the rebellion commencing again more violently. The local Fes militiamen took up positions in minarets of Fes al-Bali and fired down on the army, but the two sides later negotiated peace and

504-590: A century after the end of English rule in 1684, Tangier was primarily a military town, the main fortified outpost on the Moroccan Sultanate's side of the Strait of Gibraltar . This role evolved after Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah designated it in 1777 as the main point of contact between the Moroccan monarchy and European commercial interests, leading to the gradual relocation of a number of consulates to

630-568: A charter to smooth the transition and extend the Zone's tax and other privileges for some more time. The Moroccan monarchy's attitudes towards the country's northern region turned sharply negative with the 1958 Rif riots , however. By Dahir of 17 October 1959, Mohammed V abrogated the charter with only a six-months notice period. The expiration of that transition in April 1960 marked the final end of Tangier's special status. The Zone's governance framework

756-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

882-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

1008-1081: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

1134-591: A further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area. Tangier was effectively annexed to the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco on 23 November 1940. In May 1944, Franco expelled all German diplomats from the Zone. A quadripartite conference (France, Soviet Union, UK and United States) met in Paris in August 1945, with Francoist Spain excluded at Soviet insistence. It concluded with

1260-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

1386-703: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] {{main other| ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

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1512-505: A reputation for tolerance, diversity of culture, religion, and bohemianism . It became a tourist hotspot for literary giants and gay men from Western countries. Many of the latter were able to live an openly "out" life in the Zone. The activity of Tangier as an offshore financial centre and tax haven took off in the postwar period. In 1950, there were 85 banks in Tangier, up from 4 in 1900 and 15 in 1939. Its practice of banking secrecy

1638-594: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from

1764-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

1890-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

2016-579: A special status and defined its geographical boundaries. A technical committee of France, Spain and the UK met in Madrid in 1913, but only reached agreement in November 1914, after World War I had started, which allowed Spain, which was unsatisfied with the outcome, to suspend its implementation for several years. Meanwhile, Tangier still operated under an ad hoc governance regime with a Sultan-appointed governor,

2142-601: A temporary Anglo-French Agreement of 31 August 1945, in which the two powers made arrangements for the re-establishment of the Zone's international institutional framework, invited the United States and the Soviet Union to join it, and reversed the advantages that Italy had secured under the 1928 Protocol. The intent at the time was to establish a new permanent statute following an ad hoc conference. The Anglo-French Agreement entered into force on 11 October 1945, when

2268-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

2394-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

2520-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

2646-737: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic

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2772-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

2898-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

3024-586: Is a slave concubine of Georgian origin. Purchased in Istanbul in 1876 by the vizier Sidi Gharnat, she was the favorite of Sultan Moulay Hassan I during the sixteen years she remained in his harem. Nour: Circassian slave purchased in Turkey by Hadj El Arbi Brichi and offered to the sultan as a slave concubine. She is probably the beautiful Circassian bought for 25,000 francs at the Istanbul bazaar. But

3150-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

3276-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

3402-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

3528-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

3654-459: Is not retained, together they had: Sultan Moulay Hassan I is also the father of: Moulay Hassan I had a harem of slave concubines ( jawari ), however the precise number of his slave concubines is largely unknown, leaving room for speculation. Only the partial identity of nine of his slave concubines from the Caucasus are known. His descent with them are not specified: Aisha (Ayesha): she

3780-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

3906-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As

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4032-422: Is the daughter of Prince Moulay Abbas ben Abd al-Rahman , her mother is a woman named Maimouna. Together they had: Lalla Aliya al-Settatiya, their marriage took place before 1876. Together they had: Lalla Khadija bint al-Arbi, together they had: Lalla Zohra bint al-Hajj Maathi, together they had: Sharifa Lalla Ruqaya Al Amrani , his favorite wife. She is from an illustrious Moroccan family. After

4158-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

4284-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

4410-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

4536-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

4662-532: The Francoist State publicly considered the occupation a temporary protection measure, occasionally presented as a way to shield Tangier against the risk of German or Italian invasion and thus safeguard Tangier's neutrality. The Zone's key institutions, the Committee of Control and Legislative Assembly, were abolished on 3 November 1940, triggering a diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain that led to

4788-758: The Marshan Palace used as a ceremonial venue by the Moroccan Monarchy. The Mendoubia became a commercial court and eventually a memorial museum of the Tangier Speech in the early 21st century. 35°46′N 5°48′W  /  35.767°N 5.800°W  / 35.767; -5.800 Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )

4914-775: The Mendoub , or representative of the Sultan, with executive and judiciary authority over matters exclusively related to the Muslim and Jewish communities. The Committee of Control was formed by the Consuls of the participating powers. Its chair rotated on a yearly basis. It held a veto right over the Legislative Assembly's bills, without right of appeal except before the Permanent Court of International Justice in

5040-579: The Republic of Pisa in 1358. Such bilateral arrangements, known as capitulations , were signed with France in 1767, the United Kingdom in 1856 , and Spain in 1861 in the wake of the Treaty of Wad Ras . In 1863, France and Morocco signed the so-called Béclard Convention which expanded the protégé system to France's benefit, which in 1880 was extended to other nations by the Treaty of Madrid . Under

5166-530: The Senegal River and included the town of Timbuktu and neighboring portions of Sudan , a claim based on the fact that the predecessors of Moulay Hassan had always considered themselves as sovereigns of these regions. Since 1879, the British occupied Tarfaya and built a fortification there in 1882 known as Port Victoria . It was not until 1886 that the sultan sent a military expedition there, damaging

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5292-612: The State Bank of Morocco in Tangier, and also created new bodies for the city's management such as an Office of Public Works that in 1909 took over part of the services that had been managed by the Hygiene Commission. The Act of Algeciras also resulted in the creation of a dual police force under foreign control, the Tabor divided between French and Spanish components, respectively in charge of public order outside and inside

5418-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

5544-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

5670-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

5796-753: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Hassan I of Morocco other political entities Son of

5922-584: The (majority) Muslim and Jewish communities, similar to that of Pashas or Qadis in other parts of Morocco under the Protectorates. He also chaired the Legislative Assembly, albeit without a vote of his own, and enacted its laws and regulations, but only after prior countersignature by the Chair of the Committee of Control. His office was in the Mendoubia . The initial economic effect of the creation of

6048-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

6174-571: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

6300-847: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] {{main other|. Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

6426-750: The Act of Algeciras of 7 April 1906, from which appeals went to the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland in Lausanne . The Mixed Courts were initially located together with the International Administration on Boulevard Pasteur. In 1937, they moved to a purpose-built art deco courthouse on rue Washington (now avenue Omar Ibn Al Khattab ), which after Moroccan independence became the city courthouse (French: palais de justice ). The Mendoub had direct authority over

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6552-522: The Belgian, British, Spanish, French, and Italian governments, They worked with two prosecutors, one French and one Spanish. As a result of the creation of the Mixed Courts, the participating European powers withdrew the consular courts that previously exercised jurisdiction there. From the start, the Mixed Courts were considered a unique experiment given their international setup. The applicable law

6678-516: The Committee of Control practically could not reach a quorum. Fascist Italy had declined to ratify the Paris Convention as it insisted on equal status as a "great Mediterranean power" and was offended about not having been invited to the negotiation in Paris; the United States, meanwhile, preferred to keep their freedom of action. Both consequently kept their nationals under their respective systems of consular courts. Italy's demand to join

6804-536: The Court of the Mendoub and the respective Islamic and Rabbinical jurisdictions under the Mendoub's authority. American citizens remained under the pre-1923 extraterritorial jurisdiction of the consular court of the United States, except for matters of property title and Islamic law. The State Bank of Morocco , whose head office was in Tangier, remained under the jurisdiction of a special tribunal created by Article 45 of

6930-774: The Gourara-Touat-Tidikelt. The Moroccan Government even went so far as to extend to the qaids of the Touareg of the Ahenet and the Hoggar a formal recognition that they were dependent subjects of the Sultan. In 1892 and 1893, the Moroccans further solidified their control in the Guir - Zouzfana basin and along the oued Saoura by investing with official authority the qaids from all of the nomadic and sedentary tribes of

7056-407: The Hague . Executive power was vested in an Administrator, except for the (majority) Muslim and Jewish communities under the authority of the Mendoub. The Administrator was formally appointed by the Sultan, on a proposal by the Committee of Control. In the interwar period all Administrators were French, until the Spanish takeover of June 1940. They had two deputies, one French and one British. After

7182-399: The International Zone was sharply negative, because the Spanish protectorate authorities discouraged commerce with it and thus Tangier lost most of its traditional hinterland. Tangier had handled nineteen percent of Morocco's imports in 1906, but only four percent in 1929. With time, however, the service activities favoured by the zone's special status enabled a gradual recovery. The Zone had

7308-500: The Mendoub, which in practice made the Assembly a French-dominated body. After World War II , a new home was built for the Legislative Assembly in the Marshan neighborhood of Tangier, across the street from the Mendoub's Residence . Judicial power over the Zone's residents from the participating powers resided in the Mixed Courts. Under the initial Paris Convention of 1923, these had four judges (two British, one French and one Spanish), expanded in 1928 to five, respectively appointed by

7434-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

7560-404: The Naib reduced to a largely ceremonial role since Morocco under the protectorates no longer had an autonomous foreign policy, the extraterritorial courts under the respective foreign delegations (downgraded back to consulate status for the same reason), the Sanitary Council, the Hygiene Commission, the French and Spanish Tabors , and assorted specialized committees. Negotiations restarted after

7686-421: The Netherlands (12 June 1929). That revision also allowed the final abolition of Tangier's former ad hoc institutions, the Sanitary Council and Hygiene Commission, which Italy had previously insisted to maintain. Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day Paris fell to the Germans . Despite calls by the writer Rafael Sánchez Mazas and other Spanish nationalists to annex " Tánger español ",

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7812-432: The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the UK, and the United States), the future arrangements were not and would be decided solely by the Moroccan authorities. The resulting protocol signed on 29 October 1956 returned Tangier to full Moroccan sovereignty with immediate effect, while the operation of its international institutions was extended for practical purposes only until the end of 1956. On 24 August 1957, Mohammed V granted

7938-429: The Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, the UK, and the U.S., as well as Spanish and French prosecutors. Even after that reform, it remained affected by shortcomings that included inadequate representation of Muslim Moroccans and an insufficient number of judges. The Mixed Courts were only one component of Tangier's complex system of jurisdictions. Cases pertaining exclusively to the Muslim and Jewish communities were handled by

8064-474: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

8190-413: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

8316-414: The Saharan oases in 1889 and in 1890. In 1891 Moulay Hassan called on the oases peoples to begin paying taxes, thus formalizing the recognition of his suzerainty. That same year the Touat and the oases which lay along the Oued Saoura were placed under the authority of the son of the Moroccan khalifa who resided in the Tafilalt. Then, in 1892, a complete administrative organization was established in all of

8442-402: The Sanitary Council and gradually took shape in the 1880s as a de facto municipal council, with members appointed by the foreign diplomats but also the Sultan and prominent local residents. The Hygiene Commission was chaired by the foreign envoys, on three-months turns with succession based on alphabetical order of nationality. Its leading executive was the vice chair, a position held for most of

8568-411: The Spanish government withdrew its military force and handed over the territory's government to the revived international institutions. From then on, the U.S. participated in the Committee of Control and appointed a judge to the Mixed Courts. The Soviet Union soon relinquished interest in Tangier, however, which allowed Spain to participate again in the international framework albeit without positions in

8694-424: The Spanish takeover, they appear to have been at least partly located at the nearby French Consulate . A new building constructed to house the International Administration was completed in the early 1950s. The Administrator nominated the (generally Spanish) head of the urban police, for ratification by the Legislative Assembly; the police was complemented by a gendarmerie, headed by a Belgian captain. These replaced

8820-413: The Tangier Zone met in June 1956 and proposed a protocol for a temporary regime, which was signed by Moroccan Foreign Minister Ahmed Balafrej on behalf of Sultan Mohammed V in Rabat on 5 July 1956. As a consequence, the position of Administrator was abolished and replaced on 10 July 1956 by that of a Moroccan governor or Amel , which was immediately assumed by the Mendoub Ahmad at-Tazi. Simultaneously,

8946-406: The Tangier police force was transferred under Moroccan authority. A conference was subsequently held in October 1956, opening in Fedala (later Mohammedia ) on the 8th and transferred to Tangier on the 10th. Balafrej insisted that, while the abolition of the international status was a matter of negotiation with the foreign powers represented in the Committee of Control (namely Belgium, France, Italy,

9072-583: The United Kingdom, and the United States; and a separate convention signed by France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom, by which the Mixed Courts were reformed into an International Jurisdiction with more judges. This entered into force by Dahir of the Sultan on 10 June 1953. Following the end of the French protectorate on 2 March 1956 and of the Spanish one on 7 April 1956, the Committee of Control of

9198-671: The Zayanes in Khenifra in 1877. Mouha Zayani was to be an important figure in the 20th century colonial war against France . In 1887 he appointed sheikh Ma al-'Aynayn as his qaid in Western Sahara . Ma al-'Aynayn too played an important role in the struggle for independence of Morocco . Moulay Hassan decided to reinstate the old Moroccan administration in the Gourara - Touat - Tidikelt . The first Moroccan envoys reached

9324-539: The administration, and Italy to recover its former position in the Mixed Courts.. A new status was eventually negotiated from August 1952 and finalized on 10 November 1952, with two documents: a protocol amending the Anglo-French Agreement of 31 August 1945 on various aspects of the Zone's administration, signed and subsequently ratified by Belgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,

9450-464: The capitulations' legal protection the United Kingdom established a postal service in Tangier in 1857, followed by France in 1860, Spain in 1861, and Germany in 1899; the Moroccan Sultanate followed suit with its own service in 1902. The foreign powers in Tangier soon started developing joint projects, starting with matters of quarantine and public health as early as 1792. In 1840, a Dahir (decree) of Sultan Abd al-Rahman mandated them to establish

9576-547: The city by the main European nations. Great Britain, an ally of the Sultanate since 1713 as it needed Moroccan help to provision Gibraltar , moved its consul from Tétouan to Tangier in the 1770s, and the consul of France similarly moved in from Rabat in the early 1780s. By 1830, Denmark, France, Portugal, Sardinia , Spain, Sweden, Tuscany , the United Kingdom, and the United States all had consulates in Tangier. In 1851,

9702-617: The city limits. In March 1912, the Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate in Morocco and raised again the status of Tangier. Both France and Spain wanted to control the city, while the United Kingdom wanted to neutralise it to maintain its dominance of the Strait of Gibraltar . Later that year, Article 7 of the Treaty Between France and Spain Regarding Morocco stipulated that Tangier would be granted

9828-574: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

9954-579: The date she joined the sultan's harem is not specified. Suchet adds a "batch" of four other Circassian women of great beauty and accomplished talents purchased for 100,000 francs in 1878 in Cairo and another three other Circassian slave concubines, without further details. On 9 June 1894, Mawlay Hassan I died from illness near Wadi al-Ubayd in the region of Tadla . Since the army was still in enemy territory, his chamberlain and Grand Wazir Ahmad bin Musa kept

10080-471: The decade from 1888 to 1898 by Spanish physician Severo Cenarro  [ es ] . In 1887, Greek-American community leader Ion Hanford Perdicaris advocated a special status for Tangier as a neutral free port under the great powers ' joint control. In 1892, the Hygiene Commission took over some of the tasks of the Sanitary Council (which nevertheless continued to exist in parallel), and

10206-425: The disgrace of her step-son Sidi Mohammed, Sultan Moulay Hassan I hastened to name her son Moulay Abdelaziz official heir to the crown. Their children are: Lalla Kinza al-Daouia: she divorced from the sultan and remarried to Abdallah al-Daouia then to Mohammed el-Talba. From her marriage to the sultan she had: Lalla Oum al-Khair, her last name is not retained, together they had: Lalla Oum Zayda, her last name

10332-587: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

10458-659: The end of the war, in Cannes in 1922, followed by a preparatory conference in London in June 1923, and a follow-up conference in Paris that started in October and concluded with a convention signed by France , Spain and the UK on 18 December 1923, ignoring Italy 's stated wish to participate as well. Under that Paris Convention, Tangier was made a neutral zone under joint administration by

10584-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

10710-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

10836-612: The fort and forcing Donald MacKenzie to leave. The sultan's expedition to Sus in 1886 was followed a year later by the Spanish occupation of Dakhla on the Saharan coast. Mawlay Hassan responded by appointing a khalifa (governor) over the Sahara, Ma al-'Aynayn . In 1888 Timbuktu requested that Moulay Hassan send a governor to help the town against the French forces advancing into the Niger basin . Mawlay Hassan I continued to expand

10962-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

11088-529: The high passage along Telouet , the Tichka pass (2260 m) in the high Atlas, Guelmim port of the Western Sahara . The voyage took six months and succeeded in its objective of reuniting and pacifying the tribes of several regions. The Krupp cannon he gave on this occasion to the qaid of Telouet (member of the now famous Glaoua family) is still on display in the center of Warzazat . In 1881 he founded Tiznit . Hassan I appointed Mouha Zayani as qaid of

11214-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

11340-500: The independence of Morocco while neighbouring states fell under European influence, such as Tunis which was conquered by France in 1881 and Egypt which was occupied by Britain in 1882. Both Spain and France hoped for a weak Makhzen government of Morocco, while the British hoped for the opposite, a reformed Moroccan state which could stand on its own. Aware of this, Mawlay Hassan called for an international conference on

11466-453: The international framework on a par with the signatories of the Paris Convention was supported by Spain from 1926, then by the UK, and a new conference eventually started in Paris in March 1928. The new protocol, amending the previous Paris Convention of 1923, was signed there on 25 July 1928. It was then ratified by Belgium (25 July 1928), Sweden (19 October 1928), Portugal (15 January 1929), and

11592-459: The issue, and the Treaty of Madrid was signed on 3 July 1880 to limit the practice, an important event of Mawlay Hassan's reign. Instead of reducing foreign interference, the Makhzen had to grant concessions such as granting foreigners rights to own land in the countryside, something which Great Britain was pushing for all along. This was followed by French incursions into the region of Touat in

11718-543: The land side by the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , it was governed under a unique and complex system that involved various European nations, the United States (mainly after 1945), and the Sultan of Morocco , himself under a French protectorate . Due to its status as an international zone, Tangier played a crucial role for Moroccan Nationalists, who wanted independence, to establish international contacts and recruit allies as well as organising gatherings and events. For nearly

11844-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

11970-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

12096-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

12222-624: The loyalty of the great chiefs of the south. He did not hesitate to appoint local qaids like Sheikh Ma al-'Aynayn who gave him the Bay'a , the pledge of allegiance in Islamic Sharia law . He tried to modernize his army, and lead several expeditions to assert his authority, such as to the Sous in 1882 and 1886 , to the Rif in 1887, and to Tafilalt in 1893 . Sultan Hassan I managed to maintain

12348-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

12474-536: The military reforms started by his father Muhammad IV . The new and reformed 'Askar al-Nizami introduced by sultan Abd al-Rahman in 1845 after the Battle of Isly was expanded by Mawlay Hassan I to the size of 25,000 men and 1,000 artillery. The sultan also enhanced the Moroccan coastal defences with batteries of large caliber cannon, and in 1888 built an arms factory in Fes known as Dar al-Makina , however production in it

12600-744: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] {{main other| (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

12726-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

12852-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

12978-404: The participating countries. In line with UK wishes, it was entirely free from any military presence. It was also made into a tax haven , with no tariffs on imported or exported goods or gold, no exchange controls, no income or revenue taxes, and unlimited freedom of establishment. Ratifications of the signatories were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924. The entry into force of the Paris Convention

13104-648: The prior French and Spanish Tabors that had been established under the Act of Algeciras. The zone's legislature was the International Legislative Assembly, which retained some features of the prior Hygiene Commission. It was chaired by the Mendoub and supervised by the Committee of Control. The assembly's membership was set as follows: 4 French, 4 Spanish, 3 British, 2 Italians (3 after 1928, 1 after 1945), 1 American (seat unoccupied until 1940, 3 after 1945), 1 Belgian, 1 Dutch, 1 Portuguese, 6 Muslims, and 3 Jews. The latter 9 were designated by

13230-574: The re-establishment of the international regime in 1945, the new arrangements were more favorable to smaller nations, resulting in successive Portuguese (1945–1948 and 1951–1954), Dutch (1948–1951), and Belgian (1954–1956) nationals holding the position. In the zone's early years and until 1937, the Administrator and his staff worked in the building of the Moroccan Debt Administration , on Boulevard Pasteur. From 1937 to

13356-454: The rebellion was definitely terminated. Of strong Arab culture, he did not know any foreign language, although Mawlay Hassan I was a conservative ruler, he realised the need for modernization and the reform policy of his father. He strived to maintain the cohesion of his kingdom through political, military, and religious action, in the face of European threats on its periphery, and internal rebellions, He initiated reforms. He strived to ensure

13482-662: The region (this included the Doui Menia and Oulad Djerir tribes, the most important nomads of the Guir-Zousfana basin; the oasis of Igli ; and the sedentary Beni Goumi people who lived along the banks of the Oued Zouzfana). Sultan Moulay Hassan I married eight times and had a harem of slave concubines. Here is the list of his descendants, first listing his descendants with his wives: Princess Lalla Zaynab bint Abbas their marriage took place before 1875. She

13608-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

13734-561: The rigorous application of an almost total non-taxation". In the years leading up to the First World War , Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter Jewish , and a quarter European Christians . By 1956, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Christians , and 15,000 Jews. Following Moroccan independence , the buildings that had hosted the international zone's institutions were repurposed for new uses. The Administration building became

13860-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

13986-402: The seat of the local Prefecture ( Amalat , then Wilaya ), now of the region of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima . The nearby International Jurisdiction's building became the seat of Tangier's Court of First Instance, which in turn moved in 2021 to a new building in the outskirts of Tangier; the former building of the Mixed Courts was subsequently renovated. The house of the Legislative Assembly became

14112-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

14238-552: The south, which was considered Moroccan territory. This treaty effectively gave international approval and protection for lands which had been captured by foreign powers. This set the stage for the French protectorate in Morocco beginning in 1912. In 1879 and again in 1880, the British Legation in Morocco was informed by Moroccan authorities that the domains of the Sultan Moulay Hassan reached as far as

14364-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

14490-465: The sultan Muhammad IV , Mawlay (Moulay) Hassan was proclaimed sultan of Morocco on the death of his father in 1873. His first action was to crush an urban revolt in the capital Fes in 1874, which he had to besiege for a few months. The tanners rose up in protest "raging like lions and tigers" through the streets of Fes, pillaging the house of Muhammad Bennis, the Minister of Finance, turning Fes into

14616-504: The sultan appointed a permanent representative to the foreign powers in Tangier, the Naib , and in 1856, all remaining consulates were elevated to legations . Since the Moroccan legal regime applied Islamic law only to Muslims and Judaic law only to Jews , foreign representatives were kept under a derogatory legal status defined by successive bilateral agreements with the Makhzen , the oldest of which appears to have been concluded with

14742-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

14868-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

14994-500: Was a blend of French and Spanish codes, depending on the specific matter, and the Courts' official languages were French and Spanish. Unlike other institutions of the zone, the Mixed Courts continued to function under the Spanish occupation of Tangier during World War II. Following the convention of November 1952, the renamed International Jurisdiction included 2 judges from France, 2 from Spain, and 1 from each of Belgium, Italy, Morocco,

15120-666: Was dealing with the Darqawa uprising near Figuig in the fall of 1887, which was quickly suppressed. Particularly well known is the journey Hassan I undertook in 1893. He went from Fes (leaving on 29 June) to Marrakech , passing through the Tafilalt , the sand dunes of Erg Chebbi , the valley of the Dades with the majestic gorges of the Todra, Warzazat , the Kasbah of Aït Benhaddou ,

15246-475: Was extreme, with effectively no bank licensing, no prudential supervision, no accounting obligations, and no transparency whatsoever about a bank's ownership. In some cases, the senior management of a Tangier bank would not even know who the bank's owners were. One author wrote that "the authorities of Tangier had pushed to an unequaled degree of perfection the art of non-governing by reciprocal annulment of rival sovereignties. They took care, better than elsewhere, of

15372-484: Was further delayed by translation challenges, so that the Tangier International Zone eventually started in 1 June 1925 under a Dahir of 15 May 1925. Simultaneously, the tasks of prior institutions including the Sanitary Council and Hygiene Commission were taken over by the new International Administration, even though the bodies themselves continued to exist for a few more years. The Paris Convention

15498-607: Was given legal form on 23 December 1893, with its role broadened and its name extended to road works ( French : commission d'hygiène et de voirie ) with authority to raise levies. In 1904, Tangier was chosen as location of the French-led Moroccan Debt Administration . That same year, a secret treaty between France and Spain acknowledged Tangier's special status and thus marked the first official prefiguration of later formal international arrangements. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 established

15624-429: Was in many ways unique, and ridden with ambiguities.. It was frequently renegotiated and perceived as temporary, with different participating countries constantly jockeying for influence, resulting in administrative overlap and inefficiency. It rested on five main institutions: the Committee of Control, an oversight body; the Administrator (executive); the Legislative Assembly (legislature); the Mixed Courts (judiciary); and

15750-543: Was little and costly. To train the reformed Moroccan army, Mawlay Hassan I sent students to London , but in 1876, the sultan hired Harry MacLean, a British officer based in Gibraltar , who designed a military uniform in Arab-style, and learned to speak excellent Arabic . Every year from spring to fall, Mawlay Hassan I was on campaign, and lead expeditions to all parts of the kingdom. One of Mawlay Hassan's campaigns

15876-636: Was proposed for ratification to the other powers that were party to the Algeciras Conference , except Germany , Austria and Hungary , disempowered by the peace treaties (respectively of Versailles , Saint-Germain and Trianon ), and the Soviet Union , then estranged from the international system. It was ratified by Belgium (on 6 December 1924), Sweden, the Netherlands (on 5 October 1925), and eventually by Portugal (on 28 January 1926), putting an end to an awkward early period during which

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