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65-475: The word "tankard" originally meant any wooden vessel (13th century) and later came to mean a drinking vessel. The earliest tankards were made of wooden staves, similar to a barrel , and did not have lids. A 2000-year-old wooden tankard of approximately four-pint capacity has been unearthed in Wales. A late medieval example of a fine tankard milled from alder wood was recovered by underwater archaeologists excavating

130-489: A pub landlord spinning a tall tale to an American tourist, who suspiciously asks: "Are you really Lord Tankard?" In Season 3, Episode 3 of the sitcom Cheers , Frasier Crane says to his bartender friend Sam, “Well, I’ll have a tanker of your finest lager.” Barrel A barrel or cask is a hollow cylindrical container with a bulging center, longer than it is wide. They are traditionally made of wooden staves and bound by wooden or metal hoops. The word vat

195-536: A standard size of measure , referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK and Ireland, a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons (160 L; 43 US gal), and is distinguished from other unit measurements, such as firkins , hogsheads , and kilderkins . Wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres (31 US gal; 26 imp gal). A barrel of oil, defined as 42 US gallons (35 imp gal; 160 L),

260-464: A barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation , a portion known as the "angels' share". In an environment with 100% relative humidity , very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune and sherry are not. Beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of

325-522: A cask. The modern US beer barrel is 31 US gallons (117.34777 L), half a gallon less than the traditional wine barrel (26 U.S.C. §5051 ). Barrels are also used as a unit of measurement for dry goods (dry groceries), such as flour or produce. Traditionally, a barrel is 196 pounds (89 kg) of flour (wheat or rye), with other substances such as pork subject to more local variation. In modern times, produce barrels for all dry goods, excepting cranberries, contain 7,056 cubic inches, about 115.627 L. In

390-549: A convex shape and bulge at their center, called bilge. This facilitates rolling a well-built wooden barrel on its side and allows the roller to change directions with little friction, compared to a cylinder . It also helps to distribute stress evenly in the material by making the container more curved. Barrels have reinforced edges to enable safe displacement by rolling them at an angle (in addition to rolling on their sides as described). Casks used for ale or beer have shives and keystones in their openings. Before serving

455-435: A cooper and tubs made of staves in use at the grape harvest. Herodotus ( c.  484 – c.  425 BC) allegedly reports the use of "palm-wood casks" in ancient Babylon , but some modern scholarship disputes this interpretation. In Europe, buckets and casks dating to 200 BC have been found preserved in the mud of lake villages . A lake village near Glastonbury dating to the late Iron Age has yielded one complete tub and

520-545: A cooper and tubs made of staves in use at the grape harvest. Palm-wood casks were reported in use in ancient Babylon . In Europe, buckets and casks dating to 200 BC have been found preserved in the mud of lake villages. A lake village near Glastonbury dating to the late Iron Age has yielded one complete tub and a number of wooden staves. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder reports that cooperage in Europe originated with

585-487: A cooper on board, to assemble shooks (disassembled barrels) and maintain casks. In the 19th century, coopers who crafted barrels on ships were often called groggers (or jolly jack tars ), as when a barrel of rum had been emptied, they would fill it up with boiling water and roll it around, creating a drink which was called grog. Coopers in Britain started to organise as early as 1298. The Worshipful Company of Coopers

650-414: A cooperage. Traditionally, a cooper is someone who makes wooden, staved vessels, held together with wooden or metal hoops and possessing flat ends or heads. Examples of a cooper's work include casks , barrels , buckets , tubs, butter churns , vats, hogsheads , firkins , tierces , rundlets , puncheons , pipes, tuns , butts , troughs , pins and breakers. A hooper was the man who fitted

715-632: A grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware . Some wines are fermented "on barrel", as opposed to in a neutral container like steel or wine-grade HDPE (high-density polyethylene) tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large wooden tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called "open-tops". Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, with either elliptical or round heads. The tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain

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780-504: A half inches thick and featured grooves where the heads fitted. They had Roman numerals scratched on the surface of each stave to help with reassembly. In Anglo-Saxon Britain, wooden barrels were used to store ale, butter, honey, and mead . Drinking vessels were also made from small staves of oak , yew or pine . These items required considerable craftsmanship to hold liquids and might be bound with finely worked precious metals. They were highly valued items and were sometimes buried with

845-796: A number of wooden staves. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder (died 79 AD) reported that cooperage in Europe originated with the Gauls in Alpine villages who stored their beverages in wooden casks bound with hoops. Pliny identified three different types of coopers: ordinary coopers, wine coopers and coopers who made large casks. Large casks contain more and bigger staves and are correspondingly more difficult to assemble. Roman coopers tended to be independent tradesmen, passing their skills on to their sons. The Greek geographer Strabo ( c. 64 BC to c. 24 AD) recorded that wooden pithoi (barrels or wine-jars) were lined with pitch to stop leakage and preserve

910-477: A process that is known as solera . Laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels. The law in the United States requires that " straight whiskey " (with the exception of corn whiskey ) must be stored for at least two years in new, charred oak containers. Other forms of whiskey aged in used barrels cannot be called "straight". International laws require any whisky bearing

975-416: A whisky branded as "Jameson Caskmates". Cask ale is aged in the barrel (usually steel) for a short time before serving. Extensive barrel aging is required of many sour beers . Traditional balsamic vinegar is aged in a series of wooden barrels. The pepper mash used to make Tabasco sauce is aged for three years in previously used oak whiskey barrels since its invention in 1868. Vernors ginger ale

1040-428: Is 42 US gallons (35.0  imp gal ; 159.0  L ). This measurement originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields , and permitted both British and American merchants to refer to the same unit, based on the old English wine measure, the tierce . Earlier, another size of whiskey barrel was the most common size; this was the 40 US gallons (33.3 imp gal; 151.4 L) barrel for proof spirits, which

1105-403: Is a craftsman who produces wooden casks, barrels , vats, buckets, tubs , troughs , and other similar containers from timber staves that were usually heated or steamed to make them pliable. Journeymen coopers also traditionally made wooden implements, such as rakes and wooden-bladed shovels. In addition to wood, other materials, such as iron, were used in the manufacturing process. The trade

1170-451: Is aged for at least three years. Like with other spirits, longer aging results in a more pronounced flavor. Beers are sometimes aged in barrels which were previously used for maturing wines or spirits. This is most common in darker beers such as stout, which is sometimes aged in oak barrels identical to those used for whiskey. Whisky distiller Jameson notably purchases barrels used by Franciscan Well brewery for their Shandon Stout to produce

1235-424: Is marketed as having a "barrel-aged" flavor, and the syrup used to produce the beverage was originally aged in oak barrels when first manufactured in the 19th century. Whether the syrup continues to be aged in oak is unclear. "Angels' share" is a term for the portion (share) of a wine or distilled spirit 's volume that is lost to evaporation during aging in oak barrels. The ambient humidity tends to affect

1300-498: Is mizunara oak ( Quercus crispula ), and recently Oregon oak ( Quercus garryana ) has been used. Someone who makes traditional wooden barrels is called a cooper . Today, barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum , stainless steel , and different types of plastic , such as HDPE . Early casks were bound with wooden hoops and in the 19th century these were gradually replaced by metal hoops that were stronger, more durable and took up less space. Barrel has also been used as

1365-428: Is not typically considered necessary elsewhere, whiskey made elsewhere is usually aged in used barrels that previously contained American whiskey (usually bourbon whiskey ). The typical bourbon barrel is 53 US gallons (200 L; 44 imp gal) in size, which is thus the de facto standard whiskey barrel size worldwide. Some distillers transfer their whiskey into different barrels to "finish" or add qualities to

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1430-659: Is often used for large containers for liquids, usually alcoholic beverages; a small barrel or cask is known as a keg . Barrels have a variety of uses, including storage of liquids such as water, oil, and alcohol. They are also employed to hold maturing beverages such as wine , cognac , armagnac , sherry , port , whiskey , beer , arrack , and sake . Other commodities once stored in wooden casks include gunpowder , meat , fish, paint, honey, nails, and tallow . Modern wooden barrels for wine-making are made of French common oak ( Quercus robur ), white oak ( Quercus petraea ), American white oak ( Quercus alba ), more exotic

1495-596: Is one of the oldest Livery Companies in London. It still survives today although it is now largely a charitable organisation. In the 16th century, the company won the right for coopers to be independent from breweries. Many coopers worked for breweries, making the large wooden vats in which beer was brewed, such as Guinness in Ireland. They also made the wooden kegs in which the beer was shipped to liquor retailers. Beer kegs had to be particularly strong in order to contain

1560-535: Is over 250 years old. In the United States, there are also few master coopers left. Ramiro Herrera, Master Cooper for Caldwell Vineyard in the Napa Valley , was sent to France to learn his trade, where only two out of 40 starters completed the four-year training course. It takes him around 11 hours to build a barrel, before it is ready to be toasted. Recycling casks is common in the trade, and wine casks may be converted to contain beer. Centuries-old tools remain

1625-518: Is selected because of its ability to transfer certain aromas to the spirit. Cognac is aged only in oak casks made from wood from the Forest of Tronçais and more often from the Limousin forests. Some types of tequila are aged in oak barrels to mellow its flavor. "Reposado" tequila is aged for a period of two months to one year, "Añejo" tequila is aged for up to three years, and "Extra Añejo" tequila

1690-408: Is still used as a measure of volume for oil, although oil is no longer shipped in barrels. The barrel has also come into use as a generic term for a wooden cask of any size. An Egyptian wall-painting in the tomb of Hesy-Ra , dating to 2600 BC, shows a wooden tub used to measure wheat and constructed of staves bound together with wooden hoops. Another Egyptian tomb painting dating to 1900 BC shows

1755-402: Is the most common size for an ale cask. As part of the barrel-making process , the cask needs to be steamed to soften and loosen lignin in the wood, and it is then toasted. Toasting develops the flavours of the sugars in the wood, that is the cellulose and hemicellulose . Then the barrel is charred, which involves exposing it to 1,300 °F (704 °C) for 45 seconds. A wine barrel

1820-465: Is the origin of the surname Cooper . The word "cooper" is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German kūper 'cooper' from kūpe 'cask', in turn from Latin cupa 'tun, barrel'. The word was adopted in England as an occupational surname , Cooper . The art and skill of coopering refers to the manufacture of wooden casks, or barrels. The facility in which casks are made referred to as

1885-406: Is toasted for around 35 minutes with a low fire, while for whiskey it is usual to toast for just 45 seconds on a high fire, to burn the surface. In the 21st century, coopers mostly operate barrel-making machinery and assemble casks for the wine and spirits industry. Traditionally, the staves were heated to make them easier to bend. This is still done, but now because the slightly toasted interior of

1950-508: The Gauls in Alpine villages where they stored their beverages in wooden casks bound with hoops. Pliny identified three types of coopers: ordinary coopers, wine coopers and coopers who made large casks. Large casks contained more and longer staves and were correspondingly more difficult to assemble. Roman coopers tended to be independent tradesmen, passing their skills on to their sons. The Greek geographer Strabo records wooden pithoi (casks) were lined with pitch to stop leakage and preserve

2015-474: The Industrial Revolution at the turn of the 19th century and prohibition in the United States in the early 20th century, there was less demand for barrels, and over time, various other containers were manufactured for shipping goods, including shipping containers , metal drums, and corrugated cardboard . Storing, shipping, and fermenting alcohol became the main uses for wooden barrels. In

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2080-456: The age of sail . Its viscous nature made sperm whale oil a particularly difficult substance to contain in staved containers. Oil coopers were probably the most skilled coopers in pre-industrial cooperage. Olive oil , seed oils and other organic oils were also placed in wooden casks for storage or transport. Wooden casks were also used to store mineral oil. The standard size barrel of crude oil or other petroleum product (abbreviated bbl)

2145-443: The pewter used to make tankards often contained lead , which exposed the drinker to medical effects, ranging from heavy metal poisoning to gout . This effect was exacerbated in cider -drinking areas—such as Somerset, UK—as the acidity of the cider leached the lead from the pewter more quickly. Clay tankards became prevalent in this area. Pewter is now widely lead-free. A 1970s TV advertising campaign for Whitbread beer features

2210-642: The 21st century, and, while there is a need for new coopers, there has been no pathway to the trade via apprenticeships since 1996, when the Howard government reformed the apprenticeship scheme to focus particularly on construction, food and hospitality, and hairdressing . In January 2024, it was reported that there was only one winery left in Australia still making its own barrels for storing wine, and there were fewer than 100 people still making barrels at small cooperages for other purposes. Some cooperages, such as

2275-455: The UK this is strictly correct only if the container holds 36 imperial gallons. The terms " keg " and "cask" refer to containers of any size, the distinction being that kegs are used for beers intended to be served using external gas cylinders. Cask ales undergo part of their fermentation process in their containers, called casks. Casks are available in several sizes, and it is common to refer to "a firkin " or "a kil" ( kilderkin ) instead of

2340-506: The US, the wine gallon of 231 cubic inches being the standard gallon for liquids (the corn gallon of 268.8 cubic inches for solids). In Britain, the wine gallon was replaced by the imperial gallon . The tierce later became the petrol barrel. The tun was originally 256 gallons , which explains from where the quarter, 8 bushels or 64 (wine) gallons, comes. Although it is common to refer to draught beer containers of any size as barrels, in

2405-488: The beer, a spile is hammered into the shive and a tap into the keystone. The wooden parts that make up a barrel are called staves , the top and bottom are both called heads or headers , and the rings that hold the staves together are called hoops . These are usually made of galvanized iron, though historically they were made of flexible bits of wood called withies . While wooden hoops could require barrels to be "fully hooped", with hoops stacked tightly together along

2470-481: The center of a barrel is called a bung hole and the stopper used to seal it is a bung . The latter is generally made of white silicone . A barrel is one of several units of volume , with dry barrels, fluid barrels (UK beer barrel, US beer barrel), oil barrel, etc. The volume of some barrel units is double others, with various volumes in the range of about 100–200 litres (22–44 imp gal; 26–53 US gal). Pre-1824 definitions continued to be used in

2535-647: The clarity of their drink while forgoing the expense of a fragile pint glass. Glass bottoms are sometimes retrofitted to antique tankards, reducing their value and authenticity. Covered tankards fell out of fashion in 19th century England resulting in a number of them being converted to other roles such as jugs. Metal and ceramic tankards are still manufactured but are regarded as specialty or novelty items. Modern metal tankards are often engraved to commemorate some occasion. Glass tankards—that is, straight-sided or inward-sloping glass vessels with strap handles —are still in everyday use. In previous centuries,

2600-404: The composition of this share. Drier conditions tend to make the barrels evaporate more water, strengthening the spirit. However, in higher humidities, more alcohol than water will evaporate, therefore reducing the alcoholic strength of the product. This alcoholic evaporate encourages the growth of a darkly colored fungus, the angels' share fungus, Baudoinia compniacensis , which tends to appear on

2665-491: The compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins . The presence of these compounds depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried, and the degree of "toast" applied during manufacture. Barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak , but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages (e.g., Japanese sake ) use Japanese cedar , which imparts an unusual, minty-piney flavor. In Peru and Chile,

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2730-428: The contents of which sustained crew and passengers on long voyages. They also made barrels to contain high-value commodities, such as wine and sugar. The proper stowage of casks on ships about to sail was an important stevedoring skill. Casks of various sizes were used to accommodate the sloping walls of the hull and make maximum use of limited space. Casks also had to be tightly packed, to ensure they did not move during

2795-589: The dead as grave goods . After the Battle of Hastings in 1066, when the Normans started settling in England, much wine was shipped over the English Channel from France. Wherever and whatever goods were traded, casks were used, in the same way as cardboard boxes later became common storage containers. Ships, in the age of sail , provided much work for coopers. They made water and provision casks,

2860-403: The dead as grave goods . An "ageing barrel" is used to age wine ; distilled spirits such as whiskey , brandy , or rum ; beer ; tabasco sauce ; or (in smaller sizes) traditional balsamic vinegar . When a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in (compare to microoxygenation where oxygen is deliberately added). Oxygen enters

2925-413: The desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, although this can vary from 5 to 100%. Some winemakers use "200% new oak", where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are sometimes more cheaply flavored by soaking in oak chips or added commercial oak flavoring instead of being aged in a barrel because of

2990-453: The early days, Guinness employed its own team of up to 300 highly-paid coopers in the brewery, making barrels which would be shipped around the world, and wooden casks were used by the brewery for nearly two centuries. In 1946 aluminium kegs were introduced, and over time gradually replaced the wooden barrels, until these in turn were replaced by stainless steel in the late 1980s. By 1961 there were only 70 coopers still employed by Guinness, and

3055-470: The entire top and bottom third of a barrel, iron-hooped barrels only require a few hoops on each end. Wine barrels typically come in two hoop configurations. An American barrel features six hoops, from top to center: head- or chime hoop , quarter hoop and bilge hoop (times two), while a French barrel features eight, including a so-called French hoop , located between the quarter- and bilge hoops (see "wine barrel parts" illustration). The opening at

3120-438: The exterior surfaces of most things in the immediate area. Water barrels are often used to collect the rainwater from dwellings (so that it may be used for irrigation or other purposes). This usage, known as rainwater harvesting , requires (besides a large rainwater barrel or water butt ) adequate (waterproof) roof-covering and an adequate rain pipe . Wooden casks of various sizes were used to store whale oil on ships in

3185-454: The final product. These finishing barrels frequently aged a different spirit (such as rum) or wine. Other distillers, particularly those producing Scotch, often disassemble five used bourbon barrels and reassemble them into four casks with different barrel ends for aging Scotch, creating a type of cask referred to as a hogshead . Maturing is very important for a good brandy , which is typically aged in oak casks. The wood used for those barrels

3250-455: The government's insistence that trainees should attend a university killed off a lot of the interest. Subsequently, there has been a resurgence of craft breweries and English winemakers employing coopers. In 2015 Simms was at Theakston Brewery in Masham , North Yorkshire . Simms had an apprentice by November 2015. He still uses the traditional tools, including a croze which he estimates

3315-496: The label " Scotch " to be distilled and matured in Scotland for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks. By Canadian law, Canadian whiskies must "be aged in small wood for not less than three years", and "small wood" is defined as a wood barrel not exceeding 700 litres (150 imp gal; 180 US gal) capacity. Since the U.S. law requires the use of new barrels for several popular types of whiskey, which

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3380-624: The last wooden cask was used in March 1963. Barrels intended for wine storage are made predominantly with either French common oak ( Quercus robur ), French white oak ( Quercus petraea ) or American white oak ( Quercus alba ), or Quercus sessilifolia , an Asian species that grows in Japan, Taiwan, and much of south-eastern China . There are three main categories of coopering: In wet coopering, wooden casks were traditionally made in several sizes in England and Ireland, including: The firkin

3445-406: The much lower cost. Sherry is stored in 600-litre (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) casks made of North American oak, which is slightly more porous than French or Spanish oak. The casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving "the space of two fists" empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. Sherry is also commonly swapped between barrels of different ages,

3510-454: The northeastern United States, nails, bolts, and plumbing fittings were commonly shipped in small rough barrels. These were small, 18 inches high by about 10–12 inches in diameter. The wood was the quality of pallet lumber. The binding was sometimes by wire or metal hoops or both. This practice seems to have been prevalent up till the 1980s. Older hardware stores probably still have some of these barrels. Cooper (profession) A cooper

3575-487: The preferred tool of the master cooper. By 2021, very few of the 30-odd coopers left in the United States still used traditional methods. The number of coopers has declined in Australia. A 1959 photograph held in the National Library of Australia is captioned "The cooper Harry Mahlo (one of the last coopers) Yalumba wineries, Angaston, Barossa Valley, South Australia, 1959". Several cooperages have closed in

3640-538: The pressure of the fermenting liquid, and the rough handling they received when transported, sometime over long distances, to pubs where they were rolled into tap-rooms or were lowered into cellars. Prior to the mid-20th century, the cooper's trade flourished in the United States; a dedicated trade journal was published, the National Cooper's Journal , with advertisements from firms that supplied everything from barrel staves to purpose-built machinery. After

3705-562: The staves imparts a certain flavour over time to the wine or spirit contents that is much admired by experts. In the 1960s, breweries started using metal casks because of cost and simplicity; since then, the trade of master cooper in England has been dwindling. In 2009 there were only four breweries left in England employing coopers, and only one was a master cooper: Alastair Simms at Wadworth Brewery in Devizes , Wiltshire ). When he appealed for apprentices, there were many applications, but

3770-534: The staves were 38 mm (1.5 in) thick and featured grooves where the heads fitted. They had Roman numerals scratched on the surface of each stave to help with re-assembly. In Anglo-Saxon Britain, wooden barrels were used to store ale, butter, honey and mead . Drinking-containers were also made from small staves of oak , yew or pine . These items required considerable craftsmanship to hold liquids and might be bound with finely-worked precious metals. They were highly valued items and were sometimes buried with

3835-445: The voyage and endanger the ship, crew and cask contents. Whaling ships in particular, featuring long voyages and large crews, needed many casks – for salted meat , other provisions and water – and to store the whale oil. Sperm whale oil was a particularly difficult substance to contain, due to its highly viscous nature, and oil coopers were perhaps the most skilled tradesmen in pre-industrial cooperage. Whaling ships usually carried

3900-485: The wine. Barrels were sometimes used for military purposes. Julius Caesar (100 to 44 BC) used catapults to hurl burning barrels of tar into besieged towns to start fires. The Romans also used empty barrels to make pontoon bridges to cross rivers. Empty casks were used to line the walls of shallow wells from at least Roman times. Such casks were found in 1897 during archaeological excavations of Roman Silchester in Britain. They were made of Pyrenean silver fir and

3965-418: The wine. Barrels were sometimes used for military purposes. Julius Caesar used catapults to hurl barrels of burning tar into towns under siege to start fires. Empty casks were used to line the walls of shallow wells from at least Roman times. Such casks were found in 1897 during archaeological excavation of Roman Silchester in Britain. They were made of Pyrenean silver fir and the staves were one and

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4030-465: The wooden or metal hoops around the barrels or buckets that the cooper had made, essentially an assistant to the cooper. The English name Hooper is derived from that profession. Over time, coopers took on the role of the hooper themselves. An Egyptian wall-painting in the tomb of Hesy-Ra , dating to 2600 BC, shows a wooden tub made of staves, bound together with wooden hoops, and used to measure. Another Egyptian tomb painting dating to 1900 BC shows

4095-458: The wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden . The ship sank in June 1495 while King Hans sailed from Copenhagen to Kalmar, Sweden, for a diplomatic summit. When excavated, the tankard's lid was still securely in place, and gas from the degradation of the medieval beverage was trapped inside. Metal tankards often come with a glass bottom. The legend is that the glass-bottomed tankard

4160-563: Was developed as a way of refusing the King's shilling , i.e., conscription into the British Army or Navy. The drinker could see the coin in the bottom of the glass and refuse the drink, thereby avoiding conscription. However, this is likely a fable since the Navy could press by force, rendering deception unnecessary. A further story is that the glass bottom merely allowed the drinker to judge

4225-511: Was of the same volume as five US bushels. However, by 1866, the oil barrel was standardized at 42 US gallons. Oil has not been shipped in barrels since the introduction of oil tankers , but the 42 US gallon size is still used as a unit of measurement for pricing and tax and regulatory codes. Each barrel is refined into about 20 US gallons (17 imp gal; 76 L) of gasoline , the rest becoming other products such as jet fuel and heating oil, using fractional distillation . Barrels have

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