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53-484: Tapeta may refer to: Tapetum lucidum , a tissue in the eye Tapeta, a track surface in horse racing Tapeta, a town in Nimba County , Liberia Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Tapeta . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to

106-425: A pourquoi story explaining features of New Zealand birds. Owen portrays the kiwi as nobly sacrificing its wings and flight in order to protect the trees from depredation by ground-dwelling creatures, and thereby winning its unique renown. Owen's story is sometimes described as "A Maori Legend". It has been recorded as a children's story, published as a book, was made into an animated film in 1980, set to music for

159-419: A bird, and are the only birds with nostrils at the end of their long beaks. Kiwi eat small invertebrates, seeds, grubs, and many varieties of worms. They also may eat fruit, small crayfish, eels and amphibians. Because their nostrils are located at the end of their long beaks, kiwi can locate insects and worms underground using their keen sense of smell, without actually seeing or feeling them. This sense of smell

212-425: A blue appearance, which shifts to yellow with age, with adult coloration ranging from light orange to green. While enhancing night vision, increased light scatter within the tapetum slightly compromises visual acuity. Kiwis , stone-curlews , the boat-billed heron , the flightless kākāpō , and many nightjars , owls , and other night birds such as the swallow-tailed gull possess a tapetum lucidum. Nightjars use

265-675: A joint 1080 poison operation undertaken by DOC and the Animal Health Board in Tongariro Forest in 2006, 32 kiwi chicks were radio-tagged. 57% of the radio-tagged chicks survived to adulthood. Efforts to protect kiwi have had some success, and in 2017 two species were downlisted from endangered to vulnerable by the IUCN. In 2018 the Department of Conservation released its current Kiwi Conservation Plan. In 2000,

318-633: A kiwi that had been caught in a possum trap. Extensive monitoring shows that kiwi are not at risk from the use of biodegradable 1080 poison. Introduced mammalian predators , namely stoats, dogs, ferrets, and cats, are the principal threats to kiwi. The biggest threat to kiwi chicks is stoats, while dogs are the biggest threat to adult kiwi. Stoats are responsible for approximately half of kiwi chick deaths in many areas through New Zealand. Young kiwi chicks are vulnerable to stoat predation until they reach about 1–1.2 kg (2.2–2.6 lb) in weight, at which time they can usually defend themselves. Cats also to

371-409: A lesser extent prey on kiwi chicks. These predators can cause large and abrupt declines in populations. In particular, dogs find the distinctive strong scent of kiwi irresistible and easy to track, such that they can catch and kill kiwi in seconds. Motor vehicle strike is a threat to all kiwi where roads cross through their habitat. Badly set possum traps often kill or maim kiwi. Habitat destruction

424-418: A lower-case k and, being a word of Māori origin, normally stays as kiwi when pluralised . The genus name Apteryx is derived from Ancient Greek 'without wing': a- ( ἀ- ), 'without' or 'not'; ptéryx ( πτέρυξ ), 'wing'. Although it was long presumed that the kiwi was closely related to the other New Zealand ratites, the moa , recent DNA studies have identified its closest relative as

477-409: A male and female kiwi tend to live their entire lives as a monogamous couple. During the mating season, June to March, the pair call to each other at night, and meet in the nesting burrow every three days. These relationships may last for up to 20 years. They are unusual among other birds in that, along with some raptors, they have a functioning pair of ovaries . (In most birds and in platypuses ,

530-724: A population of A. rowi in New Zealand under no environmental stress had ocular lesions in one or both eyes. The same experiment examined three specific specimens that showed complete blindness and found them to be in good physical standing outside of ocular abnormalities. A 2018 study revealed that the kiwi's closest relatives, the extinct elephant birds , also shared this trait despite their great size. Unlike virtually every other palaeognath , which are generally small-brained by bird standards, kiwi have proportionally large encephalisation quotients . Hemisphere proportions are even similar to those of parrots and songbirds , though there

583-431: A result of habitat intrusion by predators, including humans. In areas of New Zealand where introduced predators have been removed, such as sanctuaries, kiwi are often seen in daylight. They prefer subtropical and temperate podocarp and beech forests, but they are being forced to adapt to different habitat, such as sub-alpine scrub, tussock grassland, and the mountains. Kiwi have a highly developed sense of smell, unusual in

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636-517: A retinal tapetum lucidum composed of lipids. Most species of spider also have a tapetum, which is located only in their smaller, lateral eyes; the larger central eyes have no such structure. This consists of reflective crystalline deposits and is thought to have a similar function to the structure of the same name in vertebrates. Four general patterns can be distinguished in spiders: Animals without tapetum lucidum include haplorhine primates, squirrels, some birds, red kangaroo , and pigs. Eyeshine

689-466: A tapetum lucidum is present, its location on the eyeball varies with the placement of the eyeball in the head. Apart from its eyeshine, the tapetum lucidum itself has a color. It is often described as iridescent. In tigers , it is greenish. In ruminants , it may be golden green with a blue periphery, or whitish or pale blue with a lavender periphery. In dogs , it may be whitish with a blue periphery. The color in reindeer changes seasonally, allowing

742-449: A tapetum lucidum. The presence of a tapetum lucidum enables animals to see in dimmer light than would otherwise be possible. The tapetum lucidum, which is iridescent , reflects light roughly on the interference principles of thin-film optics , as seen in other iridescent tissues. However, the tapetum lucidum cells are leucophores , not iridophores . The tapetum functions as a retroreflector which reflects light directly back along

795-408: Is a type of iridescence , the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum lucidum crystals. Individuals with heterochromia may display red eyeshine in the blue eye and other-colored eyeshine in the other eye. These include odd-eyed cats and bi-eyed dogs . Although human eyes lack a tapetum lucidum, they still exhibit a weak reflection from

848-494: Is a visible effect of the tapetum lucidum. When light shines into the eye of an animal having a tapetum lucidum, the pupil appears to glow. Eyeshine can be seen in many animals, in nature, and in flash photographs . In low light, a hand-held flashlight is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is visible to humans (despite their inferior night vision ). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white , blue , green , yellow , pink , and red . However, since eyeshine

901-399: Is another major threat to kiwi; restricted distribution and small size of some kiwi populations increases their vulnerability to inbreeding. Research has shown that the combined effect of predators and other mortality (accidents, etc.) results in less than 5% of kiwi chicks surviving to adulthood. The Māori traditionally believed that kiwi were under the protection of Tāne Mahuta , god of

954-412: Is due to a highly developed olfactory chamber and surrounding regions. It is a common belief that the kiwi relies solely on its sense of smell to catch prey but this has not been scientifically observed. Lab experiments have suggested that A. australis can rely on olfaction alone but is not consistent under natural conditions. Instead, the kiwi may rely on auditory and/or vibrotactile cues. Once bonded,

1007-758: Is instead thought to be an adaptation for precocity , enabling kiwi chicks to hatch mobile and with yolk to sustain them for two and half weeks. The large eggs would be safe in New Zealand's historical absence of egg-eating ground predators, while the mobile chicks would be able to evade chick-eating flying predators. Lice in the genus Apterygon and in the subgenus Rallicola ( Aptericola ) are exclusively ectoparasites of kiwi species. Nationwide studies show that only around 5–10% of kiwi chicks survive to adulthood without management. As of 2018 over 70% of kiwi populations are unmanaged. However, in areas under active pest management, survival rates for North Island brown kiwi can be far higher. For example, prior to

1060-405: Is long, pliable and sensitive to touch, and their eyes have a reduced pecten . Their feathers lack barbules and aftershafts , and they have large vibrissae around the gape . They have 13 flight feathers , no tail and a small pygostyle . Their gizzard is weak and their caecum is long and narrow. The eye of the kiwi is the smallest relative to body mass in all avian species, resulting in

1113-427: Is no evidence of similarly complex behaviour. Before the arrival of humans in the 13th century or earlier, New Zealand's only endemic mammals were three species of bat , and the ecological niches that in other parts of the world were filled by creatures as diverse as horses, wolves and mice were taken up by birds (and, to a lesser extent, reptiles, insects and gastropods). The kiwi's mostly nocturnal habits may be

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1166-441: Is renowned for its brilliance, even inspiring ancient Egyptians to believe it reflected the sun at night. This reflective layer, composed of 15-20 layers of cells centrally. This cellular structure, denser than that of dogs, results in high reflectance, nearly 130 times that of humans. Its color is heterogeneous, varying with age and species due to factors like rodlet spacing, refractive index, and light interactions. Young cats exhibit

1219-1036: The Berlin Zoo has seven, Walsrode Bird Park has one, the Avifauna Bird Park in the Netherlands has three, the San Diego Zoo has five, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park has one, the National Zoo in Washington, DC has eleven, the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute has one, and the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium has three. In 2023, Zoo Miami apologized for mistreating a kiwi, after footage of visitors patting

1272-656: The Department of Conservation set up five kiwi sanctuaries focused on developing methods to protect kiwi and to increase their numbers. A number of other mainland conservation islands and fenced sanctuaries have significant populations of kiwi, including: North Island brown kiwi were introduced to the Cape Sanctuary in Hawke's Bay between 2008 and 2011, which in turn provided captive-raised chicks that were released back into Maungataniwha Native Forest. Sanctuaries for kiwi are also referred to as 'kōhanga sites' from

1325-463: The choroid , as can be seen in photography with the red-eye effect and with near-infrared eyeshine. Another effect in humans and other animals that may resemble eyeshine is leukocoria , which is a white shine indicative of abnormalities such as cataracts and cancers . Humans can scan for eyeshine to detect and identify the species of animals in the dark and deploy search dogs and search horses at night. The color corresponds approximately to

1378-426: The order Apterygiformes . The five extant species fall into the family Apterygidae ( / ˌ æ p t ə ˈ r ɪ dʒ ə d iː / ) and genus Apteryx ( / ˈ æ p t ər ɪ k s / ). Approximately the size of a domestic chicken , kiwi are the smallest ratites (which also include ostriches , emus , rheas , cassowaries and the extinct elephant birds and moa ). DNA sequence comparisons have yielded

1431-447: The suboptimal design of the vertebrate retina. Traditionally, it has been difficult to take retinal images of animals with a tapetum lucidum because ophthalmoscopy devices designed for humans rely on a high level of on-axis illumination. This kind of illumination causes backscatter when it interacts with the tapetum. New devices with variable illumination can make this possible, however. In dogs, certain drugs are known to disturb

1484-615: The Kiwis. A kiwi has featured on the reverse side of three New Zealand coins: the one florin (two-shilling) coin from 1933 to 1966, the twenty-cent coin from 1967 to 1990, and the one-dollar coin since 1991. In currency trading the New Zealand dollar is often referred to as "the kiwi". A song, "Sticky Beak the Kiwi", with words by Bob Edwards and music by Neil Roberts, was recorded in 1961, sung by Julie Nelson (aged 14) and accompanied by

1537-791: The Māori word for 'nest' or 'nursery'. Operation Nest Egg is a programme run by the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust—a partnership between the Bank of New Zealand , the Department of Conservation and the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society . Kiwi eggs and chicks are removed from the wild and hatched and/or raised in captivity until big enough to fend for themselves—usually when they weigh around 1200 grams (42 ounces). They are then returned to

1590-635: The Satins and the Don Bell Orchestra of Whangārei . A Christmas song, it portrays Sticky Beak as insisting on pulling Santa Claus's sleigh when distributing presents south of the equator. "How the Kiwi Lost its Wings" is a fable written by broadcaster Alwyn Owen in 1963. It uses elements of Māori mythology, such as Tāne Mahuta , and the World War I symbol of cowardice, white feathers , in

1643-680: The UK and the US, the symbol became more widely known. During the First World War, the name "Kiwis" for New Zealand soldiers came into general use, and a giant kiwi (now known as the Bulford kiwi ) was carved on the chalk hill above Sling Camp in England. Usage has become so widespread that all New Zealanders overseas and at home are now commonly referred to as " Kiwis ". The kiwi has since become

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1696-413: The animals to better avoid predators in low-light winter at the price of blurrier vision. A classification of anatomical variants of tapeta lucida defines four types: The functional differences between these four structural classes of tapeta lucida are not known. Humans like haplorhine primates lack a tapetum lucidum as they are diurnal . Strepsirrhine primates are mostly nocturnal and, with

1749-578: The best-known national symbol for New Zealand, and the bird is prominent in the coat of arms, crests and badges of many New Zealand cities, clubs and organisations. At the national level, the red silhouette of a kiwi is in the centre of the roundel of the Royal New Zealand Air Force . The kiwi is featured in the logo of the New Zealand Rugby League , and the New Zealand national rugby league team are nicknamed

1802-450: The bristly, hair-like, two-branched feathers. While most adult birds have bones with hollow insides to minimise weight and make flight practicable, kiwi have marrow , like mammals and the young of other birds. With no constraints on weight due to flight requirements, brown kiwi females carry and lay a single egg that may weigh as much as 450 g (16 oz). Like most other ratites, they have no uropygial gland ( preen gland). Their bill

1855-452: The conclusion that kiwi are much more closely related to the extinct Malagasy elephant birds than to the moa with which they shared New Zealand. There are five recognised species, four of which are currently listed as vulnerable , and one of which is near threatened . All species have been negatively affected by historic deforestation , but their remaining habitat is well protected in large forest reserves and national parks. At present,

1908-410: The egg, except for the great spotted kiwi, A. haastii , in which both parents are involved. The incubation period is 63–92 days. Producing the huge egg places significant physiological stress on the female; for the thirty days it takes to grow the fully developed egg, the female must eat three times her normal amount of food. Two to three days before the egg is laid there is little space left inside

1961-440: The end of their long beak to detect prey before they see it, have helped the bird to become internationally well known. The kiwi is recognised as an icon of New Zealand , and the association is so strong that the term Kiwi is used internationally as the colloquial demonym for New Zealanders. The Māori language word kiwi is generally accepted to be "of imitative origin" from the call . However, some linguists derive

2014-764: The exception of several diurnal Eulemur species, have a tapetum lucidum of riboflavin crystals. In canids, the tapetum lucidum is found in the dorsal half of the eye's fundus. It consists of 9-20 layers of specialized rectangular cells between the choroid and retinal pigment epithelium, thinning towards the periphery. The cells contain zinc-rich rodlets arranged in parallel. The structure appears yellow-green in adults, though blue in puppies until four months of age. Zinc concentration varies among species, with red foxes showing highest levels, followed by Arctic foxes, then domestic dogs. A hereditary zinc-deficiency condition in some beagles results in degenerated tapetal cells with disrupted rodlet arrangement. The tapetum lucidum in cats

2067-615: The extinct elephant bird of Madagascar , and among extant ratites, the kiwi is more closely related to the emu and the cassowaries than to the moa. Research published in 2013 on an extinct genus, Proapteryx , known from the Miocene deposits of the Saint Bathans Fauna , found that it was smaller and probably capable of flight, supporting the hypothesis that the ancestor of the kiwi reached New Zealand independently from moas, which were already large and flightless by

2120-439: The female for her stomach and she is forced to fast. It was believed that the large eggs were a trait of much larger moa -like ancestors, and that kiwi retained large eggs as an evolutionarily neutral trait as they became smaller. However, research in the early 2010s suggested that kiwi were descended from smaller flighted birds that flew to New Zealand and Madagascar, where they gave rise to kiwi and elephant birds. The large egg

2173-421: The forest. They were used as food and their feathers were used for kahu kiwi —ceremonial cloaks. Today, while kiwi feathers are still used, they are gathered from birds that die naturally, through road accidents, or predation, and from captive birds. Kiwi are no longer hunted and some Māori consider themselves the birds' guardians. In 1813, George Shaw named the genus Apteryx in his species description of

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2226-418: The greatest threat to their survival is predation by invasive mammalian predators. The vestigial wings are so small as to be invisible under their bristly, hair-like, two-branched feathers. Kiwi eggs are one of the largest in proportion to body size (up to 20% of the female's weight) of any order of bird in the world. Other unique adaptations of kiwi, such as short and stout legs and using their nostrils at

2279-635: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tapeta&oldid=1177705573 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Tapetum lucidum The tapetum lucidum contributes to the superior night vision of some animals. Many of these animals are nocturnal , especially carnivores , while others are deep-sea animals . Similar adaptations occur in some species of spiders . Haplorhine primates , including humans, are diurnal and lack

2332-421: The light path. This serves to match the original and reflected light, thus maintaining the sharpness and contrast of the image on the retina. The tapetum lucidum reflects with constructive interference , thus increasing the quantity of light passing through the retina. In the cat, the tapetum lucidum increases the sensitivity of vision by 44%, allowing the cat to see light that is imperceptible to human eyes. When

2385-558: The nocturnal bird under bright lights caused outrage in New Zealand. The kiwi as a symbol first appeared in the late 19th century in New Zealand regimental badges. It was later featured in the badges of the South Canterbury Battalion in 1886 and the Hastings Rifle Volunteers in 1887. Soon after, the kiwi appeared in many military badges; and in 1906, when Kiwi Shoe Polish was widely sold in

2438-872: The precise organization of the crystals of the tapetum lucidum, thus compromising the dog's ability to see in low light. These drugs include ethambutol , macrolide antibiotics, dithizone , antimalarial medications , some receptor H 2 -antagonists , and cardiovascular agents . The disturbance "is attributed to the chelating action which removes zinc from the tapetal cells." Kiwi (bird) Apteryx haastii Great spotted kiwi Apteryx owenii Little spotted kiwi Apteryx rowi Okarito brown kiwi Apteryx australis Southern brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli North Island brown kiwi Stictapteryx Iredale & Mathews, 1926 Kiwi Verheyen, 1960 Pseudapteryx Lydekker 1891 Kiwi ( / ˈ k iː w iː / KEE -wee ) are flightless birds endemic to New Zealand of

2491-500: The right ovary never matures, so that only the left is functional. ) Kiwi eggs can weigh up to one-quarter the weight of the female. Usually, only one egg is laid per season. The kiwi lays one of the largest eggs in proportion to its size of any bird in the world, so even though the kiwi is about the size of a domestic chicken, it is able to lay eggs that are about six times the size of a chicken's egg. The eggs are smooth in texture, and are ivory or greenish white. The male incubates

2544-408: The smallest visual field as well. The eye has small specialisations for a nocturnal lifestyle, but kiwi rely more heavily on their other senses (auditory, olfactory, and somatosensory system ). The sight of the kiwi is so underdeveloped that blind specimens have been observed in nature, showing how little they rely on sight for survival and foraging. In an experiment, it was observed that one-third of

2597-561: The southern brown kiwi, which he called "the southern apteryx". Captain Andrew Barclay of the ship Providence provided Shaw with the specimen. Shaw's description was accompanied by two plates, engraved by Frederick Polydore Nodder ; they were published in volume 24 of The Naturalist's Miscellany . In 1851, London Zoo became the first zoo to keep kiwi. The first captive breeding took place in 1945. As of 2007 only 13 zoos outside New Zealand hold kiwi. The Frankfurt Zoo has 12,

2650-480: The time kiwi appeared. There are five known species of kiwi, with a number of subspecies. A. haastii A. owenii A. australis A. rowi A. mantelli Relationships in the genus Apteryx Their adaptation to a terrestrial life is extensive: like all the other ratites ( ostrich , emu , rhea and cassowary ), they have no keel on the sternum to anchor wing muscles. The vestigial wings are so small that they are invisible under

2703-519: The type of tapetum lucidum, with some variation between species. It has been speculated that some flashlight fish may use eyeshine both to detect and to communicate with other flashlight fish. American scientist Nathan H. Lents has proposed that the tapetum lucidum evolved in vertebrates, but not in cephalopods , which have a very similar eye because of the backwards-facing nature of vertebrate photoreceptors. The tapetum boosts photosensitivity under conditions of low illumination, thus compensating for

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2756-414: The wild. An Operation Nest Egg bird has a 65% chance of surviving to adulthood—compared to just 5% for wild-hatched and -raised chicks. The tool is used on all kiwi species except little spotted kiwi . In 2004, anti-1080 activist Phillip Anderton posed for the New Zealand media with a kiwi he claimed had been poisoned. An investigation revealed that Anderton lied to journalists and the public. He had used

2809-404: The word from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian * kiwi , which refers to Numenius tahitiensis , the bristle-thighed curlew , a migratory bird that winters in the tropical Pacific islands. With its long decurved bill and brown body, the curlew resembles the kiwi. So when the first Polynesian settlers arrived, they may have applied the word kiwi to the newfound bird. The bird's name is spelled with

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