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50-532: A targum ( Imperial Aramaic : תרגום , interpretation , translation , version ; plural: targumim ) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the Hebrew : תַּנַ״ךְ , romanized :  Tana"kh ) that a professional translator ( מְתוּרגְמָן mǝṯurgǝmān ) would give in the common language of the listeners when that was not Biblical Hebrew . This had become necessary near

100-557: A college for converts from Judaism and Islam, until 1886, when the Holy See bought it along with other manuscripts when the Collegium closed (which is the reason for the manuscripts name and its designation). It was then mistitled as a manuscript of Targum Onkelos until 1949, when Alejandro Díez Macho noticed that it differed significantly from Targum Onkelos. It was translated and published during 1968–79, and has since been considered

150-506: A diverse population. Archaeological evidence shows that gentile migrants from neighboring Levantine provinces such as Arabia , Syria , and Phoenicia , as well as from the coastal plain and beyond, settled in the area. The new Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina was populated by Roman veterans and migrants from western parts of the empire, who also occupied its surroundings, administrative centers, and main roads. According to Lichtenberger, archaeological evidence from Bayt Nattif suggests

200-620: A number of Jews may have forfeited their Jewish identity and assimilated into the Pagan and early Christian I.e. Gentile populations. Many Jewish captives were sold into slavery across the Roman Empire, contributing to an increase in the Jewish diaspora . According to Eitan Klein, after the revolt, Roman authorities confiscated lands in Judaea, leading to the resettlement of the region by

250-567: A persistence of non-conformist unorthodox Jewish groups that did not adhere to strict Biblical monotheism , as well as remnants of semitic pagan groups related to those of Yahwahist Iron Age Judah in the late Roman period. In AD 300, Jews formed around a quarter of the population and lived in compact settlements in Galilee , while Samaritans were concentrated in Samaria . By the fifth century, Christianity had gained further ground in

300-524: A punitive recent origin for the term, and point it has been used to refer to the Southern Levant at large for centuries since Classical antiquity, when it was first used by Herodotus , and has been used by Jewish authors such as Philo and Josephus while Judaea still existed. It's claimed that the name was chosen as the new province was far larger than Judaea , and was resulted from the merger of Judaea with Galilee. Despite this "Syria" in

350-592: A series of unsuccessful large-scale Jewish rebellions against Rome, known as the Jewish-Roman Wars . The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. The First Jewish-Roman War (66-73) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple . Two generations later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136) erupted. Judea's countryside

400-465: A unit, as are the targumim of the five scrolls (Esther has a longer " Second Targum " as well.) The targum of Chronicles is quite late, possibly medieval. It is traditionally attributed to "Rav Yosef" (meaning either Rav Yosef or Rav Yosef bar Hama ). (The targum to Neviim is also sometimes referred to as the targum of Rav Yosef.) There are also a variety of western targumim on the Torah, each of which

450-517: Is I who have revealed Thy secrets to mankind. It is fully known to Thee that I have not done this for my own honour or for the honour of my father's house, but for Thy honour I have done it, that dissension may not increase in Israel." He further sought to reveal [by] a targum [the inner meaning] of Ketuvim, but a Bath Kol went forth and said, "Enough!" What was the reason? Because the date of the Messiah

500-1001: Is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish–Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis . The line of Jewish bishops in Jerusalem , which is claimed to have started with James, brother of Jesus as its first bishop, ceased to exist within the Empire. Hans Küng in Islam: Past Present and Future , suggests that the Jewish Christians sought refuge in the Arabian Peninsula and he quotes with approval Clemen et al., "This produces

550-486: Is correctly labeled as Targum Yerushalmi . The Western Targumim on the Torah, or Palestinian Targumim as they are also called, consist of three manuscript groups: Targum Neofiti I, Fragment Targums, and Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums. Of these Targum Neofiti I is the largest. It consist of 450 folios covering all books of the Pentateuch, with only a few damaged verses. The history of the manuscript begins 1587 when

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600-563: Is foretold in it. Nevertheless, most books of Ketuvim (with the exceptions of Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah, which both contain Aramaic portions) have targumim , whose origin is mostly Palestinian rather than Mesopotamian. But they were poorly preserved and less well known for lack of a fixed place in the liturgy. From Palestine, the tradition of targum to Ketuvim made its way to Italy, and from there to medieval Ashkenaz and Sepharad . The targumim of Psalms, Proverbs, and Job are generally treated as

650-723: The Sinai Peninsula . He moved the Legio X Fretensis from Aelia Capitolina to Aila (today's Eilat / Aqaba ) to secure the country against Arab incursions. The part of the Roman imperial border that now ran through Palestine was subsequently placed under its own supreme commander, the dux Palaestinae , who is known from the Notitia Dignitatum . The border wall, the Limes Arabicus , which had existed for some time,

700-562: The Southern Levant . Syria-Palaestina included Judea , Samaria , Galilee , Idumaea , and Philistia . The province retained its capital, Caesarea Maritima, and therefore remained distinct from Syria, which was located further north with its capital in Antioch . Jerusalem , which held special religious significance for the Jews but had been destroyed, was rebuilt as the colonia Aelia Capitolina . Jews were forbidden to settle there or in

750-527: The targumim . This scribal practice is rooted in the public reading of the Targum and the requirement for private study. The two "official" targumim are considered eastern (Mesopotamian, called "Babylonian"). Nevertheless, scholars believe they, too, originated in Syria Palestina because of a strong linguistic substratum of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic . Though these targumim were later "orientalised",

800-724: The Aramaic words found in the Targums Onqelos , Jonathan , and pseudo-Jonathan . Targumim are used today as sources in text-critical editions of the Bible ( Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia refers to them with the abbreviation 𝔗 ). The noun "Targum" is derived from the early semitic quadriliteral root תרגם ( trgm ), and the Akkadian term targummanu refers to "translator, interpreter". It occurs in Ezra 4 :7 "a letter written in Aramaic and translated." Besides denoting

850-641: The Babylonian Talmud as targum dilan ("our Targum"), giving them official status. In the synagogues of Talmudic times, Targum Onkelos was read alternately with the Torah, verse by verse, and Targum Jonathan was read alternately with the selection from Nevi'im (i.e., the haftara ). This custom continues today in Yemenite Jewish synagogues. Besides its public function in the synagogue, the Babylonian Talmud also mentions targum in

900-533: The Pentateuch was composed by Onkelos the proselyte from the mouths of R. Eleazar and R. Joshua. The Targum of the Prophets was composed by Jonathan ben Uzziel under the guidance of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, and the land of Israel [thereupon] quaked over an area of four hundred parasangs by four hundred parasangs, and a Bath Kol (heavenly voice) came forth and exclaimed, "Who is this that has revealed My secrets to mankind?" Jonathan b. Uzziel arose and said, "It

950-634: The Peshitta is thought to be before the year 300. Tadmor, H., 1991. "On the role of Aramaic in the Assyrian empire", in M. Mori, H. Ogawa and M. Yoshikawa (eds.), Near Eastern Studies Dedicated to H.I.H. Prince Takahito Mikasa on the Occasion of his Seventy-Fifth Birthday, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 419–426 English translations of Targum Other sources on Targum Imperial Aramaic language Too Many Requests If you report this error to

1000-630: The Tanakh from the time they were written and are notable for favoring allegorical readings over anthropomorphisms . Maimonides , for one, notes this often in The Guide for the Perplexed . That is true both for those targums that are fairly literal as well as for those that contain many midrashic expansions. In 1541, Elia Levita wrote and published the Sefer Meturgeman, explaining all

1050-506: The Targum never ceased to be a major source for Jewish exegesis . For instance, it serves as a major source in Shlomo Yitzhaki's Torah commentary, " Rashi ," and has always been the standard fare for Ashkenazi Jews onward. For these reasons, Jewish editions of the Tanakh which include commentaries still almost always print the Targum alongside the text, in all Jewish communities. Nevertheless, later halakhic authorities argued that

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1100-489: The Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 539587105 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 05:51:44 GMT Syria Palestina Judaea was a Roman province that incorporated the regions of Judea , Samaria , Idumea , and Galilee and extended over parts of

1150-537: The aftermath of the AD 132-135 Bar Kokhba revolt , identifying Emperor Hadrian as the one responsible for the measure, though no direct evidence suggests exactly when the name change was implemented or by whom, and the renaming may even have taken place before the conclusion of the revolt. While the name Judaea bore an ethnic connotation to Jews, Syria-Palaestina had a strict geographical meaning. Some authors in late antiquity, such as Jerome , continued to refer to

1200-521: The censor Andrea de Monte (d. 1587) bequeathed it to Ugo Boncompagni—which presents an oddity, since Boncompagni, better known as Pope Gregory XIII , died in 1585. The transmission route may instead be by a certain "Giovan Paolo Eustachio romano neophito." Before this de Monte had censored it by deleting most references to idolatry. In 1602 Boncompagni's estate gave it to the College of the Neophytes ,

1250-551: The context of a personal study requirement: "A person should always review his portions of scripture along with the community, reading the scripture twice and the targum once" (Berakhot 8a–b). This, too, refers to Targum Onkelos on the public Torah reading and to Targum Jonathan on the haftarot from Nevi'im. Medieval biblical manuscripts of the Masoretic Text sometimes contain the Hebrew text interpolated, verse-by-verse, with

1300-513: The correct Targum Yerushalmi (תרגום ירושלמי). Scholars refer to this targum as Targum Pseudo-Jonathan . To attribute this targum to Jonathan ben Uzziel flatly contradicts the Talmudic tradition (Megillah 3a), which quite clearly attributes the targum to Nevi'im alone to him, while stating that there is no official targum to the Ketuvim. In the same printed versions, a similar fragment targum

1350-453: The end of the first century BCE, as the common language was Aramaic and Hebrew was used for little more than schooling and worship. The translator frequently expanded his translation with paraphrases, explanations and examples, so it became a kind of sermon . Writing down the targum was initially prohibited; nevertheless, some targumitic writings appeared as early as the middle of the first century . They were not recognized as authoritative by

1400-704: The former regions of Hasmonean and Herodian Judea. It was named after Herod's Tetrarchy of Judaea , but Roman Judaea encompassed a much larger territory than Judaea . The name "Judaea" ultimately traces to the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah . Following the deposition of Herod Archelaus in 6 AD, Judea came under direct Roman rule, during which time the Roman governor was given authority to punish by execution. The general population also began to be taxed by Rome . However, Jewish leaders retained broad discretion over affairs within Judaism. The Herodian kingdom

1450-540: The heartland with the capital at Caesarea, while Palaestina Secunda extended to Galilee , the Golan , and parts of the Transjordan and its capital was Scythopolis (now Beit She'an ). Salutaris was named Palaestina Tertia or Salutaris. The name Syria-Palaestina was given to the former Roman province of Judaea in the early 2nd century AD. The renaming is often presented as an act of punitive disassociation in

1500-452: The immediate vicinity. While Syria was divided into several smaller provinces by Septimius Severus , and later again by Diocletian , Syria Palaestina survived into late antiquity . Presumably, it was small enough not to become dangerous as a potential starting point for usurpation attempts. Instead, Diocletian even integrated parts of Arabia Petraea into the province, namely the Negev and

1550-435: The land. The province was split into smaller ones during the fourth and fifth centuries. In 358, areas that had formerly belonged to Arabia Petraea were transformed into a separate province of Palaestina Salutaris with Petra as its capital. The remaining territory was named Palaestina Prima . Around the year 400, it had been further split into a smaller Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda . Palaestina Prima included

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1600-617: The larger Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Diocese of the East , together with the provinces of Isauria , Cilicia , Cyprus (until 536), Euphratensis , Mesopotamia , Osroene , and Arabia Petraea . Palaestina Prima consisted of Judaea , Samaria , the Paralia and Peraea , with the governor residing in Caesarea . Palaestina Secunda consisted of the Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley ,

1650-546: The most important of the Palestinian Targumim, as it is by far the most complete and, apparently, the earliest as well. The Fragment Targums (formerly known as Targum Yerushalmi II) consist of fragments divided into ten manuscripts. Of these P, V and L were first published in 1899 by M Ginsburger, A, B, C, D, F and G in 1930 by P Kahle and E in 1955 by A Díez Macho. These manuscripts are all too fragmented to confirm what their purpose was, but they seem to be either

1700-457: The name, Palestine was independent of Roman Syria , even to a greater extent than before, since instead of a legatus Augusti pro praetore , a higher-ranking governor of consular rank now presided over the region. This in turn was probably due to the fact that in addition to the already existing legion in Caesarea, a second legion was stationed in Legio , increasing the military importance of

1750-644: The oldest among the Palestinian Targum and have been dated to around the seventh century. Manuscripts C, E, H and Z contain only passages from Genesis, A from Exodus while MS B contain verses from both as well as from Deuteronomium. The Samaritan community has their own Targum to their text of the Torah. Other Targumim were also discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Peshitta is the traditional Bible of Syriac Christians , who speak several different dialects of Aramaic. The translation of

1800-509: The paradox of truly historic significance that while Jewish Christianity was swallowed up in the Christian church, it preserved itself in Islam ." In circa 390, Syria Palaestina was reorganised into several administrative units: Palaestina Prima , Palaestina Secunda , and Palaestina Tertia (in the 6th century), Syria Prima and Phoenice and Phoenice Lebanensis. All were included within

1850-587: The pilgrimage of Empress Helena , the mother of Constantine the Great , c. 326–28. New pagan cities were founded in Judea at Eleutheropolis (now Bayt Jibrin ), Diopolis (now Lod ), and Nicopolis . The Hellenization of Palaestina continued under Septimius Severus (193–211 AD). The Romans destroyed the Jewish community of the Church in Jerusalem, which had existed since the time of Jesus. Traditionally it

1900-529: The province. Exactly when the legion was moved and the rank of the governor's post increased is a matter of debate - in any case, these events must have occurred before the governorship of Quintus Tineius Rufus , who took office no later than 130. The population of Syria-Palaestina was of mixed character . The aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in severe devastation for Judaea's Jewish population, including significant loss of life, forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering

1950-410: The region as Judaea out of habit due to the prominent association with the Jews. This includes an inscription from Ephesos from AD 170-180, honoring the wife of a figure known as "Eroelius Klaros", who had the epithet "ruler of Judaea" ("[Ερο]υκίου Κλάρου, υπάτου, [ηγ]εμόνος Ιουδ[αίας]"), decades after the recreation of Provincia Judaea as Syria-Palaestina. Other scholars and commenters disagree with

2000-547: The region, and Christians formed a majority in Palestine and Jerusalem through migration and conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews. After the Jewish–Roman wars (66–135), which Epiphanius believed the Cenacle survived, the significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline, it having been destroyed and later refounded as the pagan colonia of Aelia Capitolina. Christian interest resumed again with

2050-431: The religious leaders. Some subsequent Jewish traditions, beginning with the Jews of Lower Mesopotamia , accepted the written targumim as authoritative translations of the Hebrew scriptures into Aramaic. Today, the common meaning of targum is a written Aramaic translation of the Bible. Only Yemenite Jews continue to use the targumim liturgically. As translations, the targumim largely reflect midrashic interpretation of

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2100-696: The remains of a single complete targum or short variant readings of another targum. As a group, they often share theological views and with Targum Neofiti, which has led to the belief that they could be variant readings of that targum. The Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums originate from the Ben Ezra Synagogue's genizah in Cairo. They share similarities with the Fragment Targums in that they consist of many fragmented manuscripts that have been collected in one targum-group. The manuscripts A and E are

2150-490: The requirement to privately review the targum might also be met by reading a translation in the current vernacular in place of the official Targum, or else by studying an important commentary containing midrashic interpretation (especially that of Rashi). The Talmud explicitly states that no official targumim were composed besides these two on Torah and Nevi'im alone, and that there is no official targum to Ketuvim ("The Writings"). The Talmud stories state: The Targum of

2200-408: The substratum belying their origins remains. When most Jewish communities ceased speaking Aramaic in the 10th century, the public reading of Targum, along with the Torah and Haftarah, was abandoned in most communities, Yemen being a well-known exception. The private study requirement to review the Targum was never entirely relaxed, even when Jewish communities had largely ceased speaking Aramaic, and

2250-446: The translations of the Bible, "targum" also denoted the oral rendering of Bible lections in synagogue , while the translator of the Bible was simply called hammeturgem (he who translates). Other than the meaning "translate", the verb tirgem also means "to explain". Targum refers to " translation " and argumentation or " explanation ". The two most important targumim for liturgical purposes are: These two targumim are mentioned in

2300-481: Was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina , and Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina, a term occasionally used among Greco-Romans for centuries to describe

2350-497: Was immense, with ancient sources reporting extensive destruction and high casualty rates. It appears that at the end of the revolt, Jewish settlement in Judaea Proper had nearly been eradicated, but remained strong in other parts of Palestine. Jewish survivors faced harsh Roman punitive measures, including expulsion from Jerusalem and other areas, leading to a migration to Galilee and Golan . Some scholars suggest that

2400-643: Was pushed further south. The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284) affected Syria Palaestina, but the fourth century brought an economic upswing due to the Christianization of the Roman Empire and the associated upswing in Christian pilgrimage to the " Holy Land ". In the course of late antiquity, with imperial support, Christianity succeeded in asserting itself against both remnants of Semitic as well as trending Hellenistic Paganism in

2450-411: Was split into a tetrarchy in 6 AD, which was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis . The capital of Judaea was shifted from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima , which, according to historian Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson , had been the "administrative capital" of the region beginning in 6 AD. During the 1st and 2nd centuries, Judaea became the epicenter of

2500-478: Was traditionally called Targum Yerushalmi ("Jerusalem Targum"), and written in Western Aramaic. An important one of these was mistakenly labeled "Targum Jonathan" in later printed versions (though all medieval authorities refer to it by its correct name). The error crept in because of an abbreviation: the printer interpreted the abbreviation TY (ת"י) to stand for Targum Yonathan (תרגום יונתן) instead of

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