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90-462: Written by the historian Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Jabbaru-l 'Utbi (or al-Utbi ). His work comprises the whole of the reign of Sebuktigin , and part of that of Mahmud, down to the year 410 Hijra (1020 AD). The Tarikh Yamini also contains information chronicling Sultan Mahmud's expeditions as well as the end of the Samanid Empire . Al-Utbi, being Mahmud's secretary, did not accompany

180-696: A Naiman who usurped the throne of the Qara Khitai dynasty, instituted anti-Islamic policies on the local populations under his rule. The decline of the Seljuks following their defeat by the Qara Khitais at the Battle of Qatwan (1141) allowed the Khwarazmian dynasty , then a vassal of the Qara Khitai, to expand into former Seljuk territory, where they became independent rulers circa 1190. In 1207,

270-474: A mirror for princes epistle , he attests that he came from a tribe in Barskhan , therefore he probably belonged to a Karluk tribe. His father was called Juq, and in contemporary Chinese documents, Sabuktigin is referred to as Sabuktigin, son of Juq. However, Juzjani , a 13-century historian, citing Tarikh-i Majadwal by Abu Al-Qasim Imami (written in early twelfth-century) states that Sabuktigin's father

360-662: A Seljuk campaign into Talas and Zhetysu, but the Eastern Khanate was a Seljuk vassal for only a short time. At the beginning of the 12th century the Eastern Khanate invaded Transoxiana and briefly occupied the Seljuk town of Termez. The Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) host which invaded Central Asia was composed of remnants from the defunct Liao dynasty which was annihilated by the Jin dynasty in 1125. The Liao noble Yelü Dashi recruited warriors from various tribes and formed

450-793: A horde that moved westward to rebuild the Liao dynasty. Yelü occupied Balasagun on the Chu River , then defeated the Western Karakhanids in Khujand in 1137. In 1141 Qara Khitai became the dominant force in the region after they dealt a devastating blow to the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar and the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Qatwan near Samarkand . Several military commanders of Karakhanid lineages such as

540-469: A lack in evidence. In truth, Ghaznavid historians such as Bayhaqi conceptualized Sabuktigin as the ideal image of an archetype : the founding monarch, who lived a simple life and was a humble soldier who imposed justice. This representation continued with Nizam al-Mulk , the vazir of the Seljuk Empire , who idealized Sabuktigin. This image persisted even half a millennium later, when Babur ,

630-487: A large force under his leadership towards Ghazna. Sabuktigin united the Turkic garrisons of Gardez , Ghazna and Bamyan and defeated the invading forces at Charkh , killing Lawik in the process. Afterwards, with the support of the army, Sabuktigin replaced Böritigin as the governor. In 978, Sabuktigin invaded Rukkhaj and Bust in the south of his realm and subdued a rival Turkic group who were installed there earlier in

720-664: Is evident in both of these pieces of work, but they also showed the influences of Persian and Islamic culture. However, the court culture of the Karakhanids remained almost entirely Persian. The two last western khaqans also wrote poetry in Persian. The Cambridge World History describes the Kara-Khanid state as the first of the Islamic Turco-Iranian states. Islam and its civilization flourished under

810-724: Is speculated that he utilized the local Persian secretaries and officials in Ghazna. After his conquest of Bust, Sabuktigin brought with himself the local secretary and poet Abu al-Fath al-Busti , who became his chancellor. Moreover, al-Utbi, who previously served the Samanids, Abu Ali Simjuri and the Ziyarid ruler Qabus , became his secretary. According to al-Utbi, Sabuktigin was initially mistrustful of him and of al-Busti, because both had served his rivals, but then both successfully gained his favour and served in high positions. Sabiktigin

900-488: The Battle of Dandanaqan and entered Iran. Conflict with the Karakhanids broke out, but the Karakhanids were able to withstand attacks by the Seljuks initially, even briefly taking control of Seljuk towns in Greater Khorasan . The Karakhanids, however, developed serious conflicts with the religious classes (the ulama ), and the ulama of Transoxiana then requested the intervention of the Seljuks. In 1089, during

990-715: The Buyids prior to 983. During the Qarakhanid invasion of the Samanid kingdom in 991, the Tarikh Yamini states that the Samanid governor Fa'iq, son of Simjurid Abu'l-Hasan Simjuri, invited Hasan b. Sulayman{Bughra Khan} to invade Bukhara . Al-Utbi gives contradictory information owing to the names and number of Farighunid rulers. Specifically never naming, Abu'l Haret Muhammad , the second Farighunid ruler. Al-Utbi states when Sebuktigin defeated Jayapala in 988,

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1080-541: The Chagatay and the Kypchak . The Kara-Khanid cultural model that combined nomadic Turkic culture with Islamic, sedentary institutions spread east into former Kara-Khoja and Tangut territories and west and south into the subcontinent, Khorasan (Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and Northern Iran), Golden Horde territories ( Tataristan ), and Turkey . The Chagatay , Timurid, and Uzbek states and societies inherited most of

1170-654: The Ghurids until the Turko-Afghans successfully established themselves in the Delhi Sultanate . ——— (1985). "Alptigin" . In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica . Vol. 9: Alp Arslan–ʿAbd-al-Hamīd. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 898. doi : 10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_5251 . ISBN   978-0-71009-098-0 . ——— (1961). The transition from Ghaznavid to Seljuq rule in

1260-760: The Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul , he invaded Indian lands, opening the gates of India for the future monarchs of his dynasty. As a vassal of the Samanid Empire, he answered Nuh II 's call to help regarding Abu Ali Simjuri 's rebellion, defeating the latter in several battles during 994 to 996. Towards the end of his life, Sabuktigin arranged an agreement with the Kara-Khanid Khanate , Samanids' rivals, to partition Nuh's realm between themselves. However, before he could realize this agreement, he died on his way to Ghazna on August-September 997. As

1350-548: The Karakhanids , Qarakhanids , Ilek Khanids or the Afrasiabids ( Persian : آل افراسیاب , romanized :  Āl-i Afrāsiyāb , lit.   'House of Afrasiab '), was a Karluk Turkic khanate that ruled Central Asia from the 9th to the early 13th century. The dynastic names of Karakhanids and Ilek Khanids refer to royal titles with Kara Khagan being the most important Turkic title up until

1440-930: The Pechenegs , the Oghuz Turks , and the Karluks. The domain of the Karluks reached as far north as the Irtysh and the Kimek confederation, with encampments extending to the Chi and Ili rivers, where the Chigil and Tukshi tribes lived, and east to the Ferghana valley and beyond. The area to the south and east of the Karluks was inhabited by the Yagma. The Karluk center in the 9th and 10th centuries appears to have been at Balasagun on

1530-750: The Toġuzġuz kings", that Ashina tribe was not listed among the Toquz Oghuz (Ch. 九姓 Jĭu Xìng "Nine Surnames") in Chinese-language sources and that early Uyghur khagans belonged to the Yaglakar clan of Toquz Oghuz and later Uyghur khagans belonged to the Ädiz clan . Alternatively, Bilge Kul Qadir might belong to the Eðgiş or Chigils . The Karluks were a nomadic people from the western Altai Mountains who moved to Zhetysu (Semirechye). In 742,

1620-772: The Uyghur Khaganate by the Old Kirghiz . Control of sacred lands, together with their affiliation with the Ashina clan, allowed the Khaganate to be passed on to the Karluks along with domination of the steppes after the previous Khagan was killed in a revolt. During the 9th century southern Central Asia was under the rule of the Samanids , while the Central Asian steppe was dominated by Turkic nomads such as

1710-577: The "heaven-mandated" right to rule resided. The Karluks and Uyghurs later allied themselves against the Basmyl, and within two years they toppled the Basmyl khagan. The Uyghur yabghu became khagan and the Karluk leader yabghu. This arrangement lasted less than a year. Hostilities between the Uyghur and Karluk forced the Karluk to migrate westward into the western Turgesh lands. By 766 the Karluks had forced

1800-698: The 1040s. In the late 11th century, they came under the suzerainty of the Seljuk Empire followed by the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) who defeated the Seljuks in the Battle of Qatwan in 1141. The Eastern Khanate ended in 1211, and the Western Khanate was extinguished by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1212. The capitals of the Kara-Khanid Khanate included Kashgar , Balasagun , Uzgen and Samarkand . The history of

1890-732: The Afghans and Khaljis of the territory he conquered between Lamghan and Peshawar surrendered and agreed to serve him. Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui citing the 13th century Persian translation, claims that Al-Utbi mentions the "Afghans" were pagans given to rapine and rapacity, they were defeated and converted to Islam. Though, plagued by incorrect dates and incorrect topography, the Tarikh Yamini does contain valuable information concerning Sultan Mahmud's invasions of India. Pgn34 In Introduction: The Translator James Reynold (translating from Persian version of Arabic Tarikh Yamini ) states: He cannot find

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1980-596: The Arab titles sultan and sultān al-salātīn ("Sultan of Sultans"). According to the Ottoman historian known as Munajjim-bashi, a Karakhanid prince named Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first of the khans to convert. After conversion, he obtained a fatwa which permitted him in effect to kill his presumably-still-pagan father, after which he conquered Kashgar (of the old Shule Kingdom ). Later, in 960, according to Muslim historians Ibn Miskawaih and Ibn al-Athir , there

2070-525: The Ashina. Even so, the tribal origin of Bilge Kul Qadir Khan, the first Kara-Khan, is still unknown: if Bilge Kul Qadir descended from the Karluk Yabghus , then he indeed belonged to the Ashina dynasty as they did; if Bilge Kul Qadir descended from the Yagma (as suggested by Vasily Bartold ), then he did not, considering that the Hudud al-'Alam stated that "Their [Yagmas'] king is from the family of

2160-727: The Chigil and Yaghma tribes – the Eastern Khagan bore the title Arslan Qara Khaqan (Arslan "lion" was the totem of the Chigil) and the Western Khagan the title Bughra Qara Khaqan (Bughra "male camel" was the totem of the Yaghma). The names of animals were a regular element in the Turkic titles of the Karakhanids: thus Aslan (lion), Bughra (camel), Toghan (falcon), Böri (wolf), and Toghrul or Toghrïl (a bird of prey). Under

2250-613: The Chu River. In the late 9th century the Samanids marched into the steppes and captured Taraz , one of the headquarters of the Karluk khagan, and a large church was transformed into a mosque. During the 9th century, the Karluk confederation (including three chief tribes: the Bulaq ( Mouluo 謀落 / Moula 謀剌), Taşlïk ( Tashili 踏實力), and Sebek (Suofu 娑匐) , along with Chigils , Charuks , Barskhans , Khalajes , Azkishi and Tuhsis (the last three being possibly remnants of Türgesh ) and

2340-460: The East and China"; 東方與秦之主 ) as their title, and minted coins bearing these titles. Another title they used was Sulṭān al-Sharq wa al-Ṣīn (Sultan of the East and China). Early period "proto-Qarakhanid" coinage featured Chinese-style square-holed coins, combined with Arabic writing. Much of the realm of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, including Transoxiana and the western Tarim Basin , had been under

2430-459: The Eastern Khanate. The Eastern Khanate had its capital at Balasaghun and later Kashgar. The Fergana-Zhetysu areas became the border between the two states and were frequently contested. When the two states were formed, Fergana fell into realm of the Eastern Khanate, but was later captured by Ibrahim and became part of the Western Khanate. In 1040, the Seljuk Empire defeated the Ghaznavids at

2520-508: The Faith and State". According to al-Biruni , before Nasir ad-Din , Sabuktigin held the laqab Mu'in ad-Dawla . As an autonomous vassal of the Samanid dynasty , Sabuktigin was referred to as amir , contrary to his descendants who assumed the royal title of sultan . Born around 940s, there is not much known about Sabuktigin's early life. In Sabuktigin's Pandnama ,

2610-507: The Islamic East (PhD thesis). The University of Edinburgh. Khatibi, Aolfazl (2015). "Abū ʿAlī Sīmjūr" . In Daftari, Farhad; Madelun, Wilfred (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online . Leiden: Brill. doi : 10.1163/1875-9831_isla_SIM_0097 . Kara-Khanid Khanate The Kara-Khanid Khanate ( Persian : قراخانیان , romanized :  Qarākhāniyān ; Chinese : 喀喇汗國 ; pinyin : Kālā Hánguó ), also known as

2700-563: The Kara-Khanid khagan , however, after a falling out between the two, Sabuktigin made a secret agreement with Nasr to separate the Samanid realms in Transoxiana between themselves. But shortly after, when he was returning to Ghazna, Sabuktigin died in a village north of Hindu Kush on August-September 997. According to Juzjani, Sabuktigin had a total of six sons, of which three were in their adolescence when he died: Mahmud , Abu al-Muzzafar Nasr, and Ismail . One other son, Yusuf,

2790-429: The Kara-Khanid Khanate is reconstructed from fragmentary and often contradictory written sources, as well as studies on their coinage . The term Karakhanid was derived from Qara Khan or Qara Khaqan ( Persian : قراخان , romanized :  Qarākhān ), the foremost title of the rulers of the dynasty. The word "Kara" means "black" and also "courageous" from Old Turkic (𐰴𐰺𐰀) and khan means ruler. The term

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2880-650: The Kara-Khanids' local status. The Kara-Khanid rulers also formed marriage relations with the Liao dynasty and addressed the Song emperors as "maternal uncle", in possible imitation of Uyghur and Tibetan rulers who had marital relations with the previous Tang dynasty. In an account, the Kara-Khanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari referred to his homeland, around Kashgar , then part of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, as "Lower China". A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined

2970-702: The Kara-Khitai throne. In 1218, Kuchlug was killed by the Mongol army . Some of the Kara-Khitai's eastern vassals including Eastern Kara-Khanids then joined the Mongol forces to conquer the Khwarezmian Empire. The takeover by the Karakhanids did not change the essentially Iranian character of Central Asia, though it set into motion a demographic and ethnolinguistic shift. During the Karakhanid era,

3060-589: The Karakhanid court. He wrote this first comprehensive dictionary of Turkic languages in Arabic for the Caliphs of Baghdad in 1072–76. Another famous Karakhanid writer was Yusuf Balasaghuni , who wrote Kutadgu Bilig (The Wisdom of Felicity), the only known literary work written in Turkic from the Karakhanid period. Kutadgu Bilig is a form of advice literature known as mirrors for princes . The Turkic identity

3150-544: The Karakhanid state. Nasr, the conqueror of Transoxiana, held the large central area of Transoxiana (Samarkand and Bukhara), Fergana (Uzgen) and other areas, although after his death his appanage was further divided. Ahmad held Zhetysu and Chach and became the head of the dynasty after the death of Ali. The brothers Ahmad and Nasr conducted different policies towards the Ghaznavids in the south – while Ahmad tried to form an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazna , Nasr attempted to expand unsuccessfully into Ghaznavid territory. Ahmad

3240-802: The Karakhanids repelled an attack by a large mass of nomadic Turkic tribes in what was described in Muslim sources as a great victory. Around the same time, the Kara-Khanid ruler Ilig Khan reached an agreement with Mahmud of Ghazni , in which they agreed to partition former Samanid territory along the Oxus river . The Islamic conquest of the Buddhist cities east of Kashgar began when the Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in 934 and then captured Kashgar. He and his son directed endeavors to proselytize Islam among

3330-441: The Karakhanids still survive today, including the Kalyan minaret built by Mohammad Arslan Khan beside the main mosque in Bukhara, and three mausolea in Uzgend. The early Karakhanid rulers, as nomads, lived not in the city but in an army encampment outside the capital, and while by the time of Ibrahim the Karakhanids still maintained a nomadic tradition, their extensive religious and civil constructions showed that they had assimilated

3420-403: The Karakhanids. The earliest example of madrasas in Central Asia was founded in Samarkand by Ibrahim Tamghach Khan . Ibrahim also founded a hospital to care for the sick as well as providing shelter for the poor. His son Shams al-Mulk Nasr built ribats for the caravanserais on the route between Bukhara and Samarkand, as well as a palace near Bukhara. Some of the buildings constructed by

3510-467: The Karluk horde: Sanah, a possible rendition of Ashina (compare Śaya (also by al-Masudi), Aś(i)nas (al-Tabari), Ānsa (Hudud al-'Alam), and Śaba (Ibn Khordadbeh) ), and Afrasiab, whom 11th-century Karakhanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari identified with Turkic king Alp Er Tunga , the legendary progenitor of the Karakhanid ruling dynasty. Furthermore, Kara-khanid heads of state claimed the title khagan , which indicates that they may have been descended from

3600-411: The Karluks were part of an alliance led by the Basmyl and Uyghurs that rebelled against the Göktürks and led to the demise of the Second Turkic Khaganate (682–744). In the realignment of power that followed, the Karluks were elevated from a tribe led by an Elteber to one led by a yabghu , which was one of the highest Turkic dignitaries and also implies membership in the Ashina clan in whom

3690-424: The Khagans were four rulers with the titles Arslan Ilig, Bughra Ilig, Arslan Tegin and Bughra Tegin. The titles of the members of the dynasty changed with their position, normally upwards, in the dynastic hierarchy. In the mid-10th century the Kara-Khanids converted to Islam and adopted Muslim names and honorifics, but retained Turkic regnal titles such as Khan, Khagan , Ilek (Ilig) and Tegin . Later they adopted

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3780-522: The Punjabi Muslim Emirate of Multan and march towards Ghazna with a large army in 986. A battle took place in Laghman which after days had no definitive winner. However, a sudden snowstorm devastated Jayapala's army. The cause of this storm's eruption, according to al-Utbi's history book Tarikh-i Yamini , was Sabuktigin himself. Jayapala conceded to a humiliating treaty with conditions such as paying 1 million dirhams , and granting his relatives as hostages to Sabuktigin. Yet, he did not uphold

3870-416: The Qara Khitai were Buddhists ruling over a largely Muslim population, they were considered fair-minded rulers whose reign was marked by religious tolerance. Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Islamic authority persevered under the Qara Khitai. Kashgar became a Nestorian metropolitan see and Christian gravestones in the Chu River Valley appeared beginning in this period. However, Kuchlug ,

3960-401: The Samanid army in Tokharistan . Eventually, Alp-Tegin conquered Ghazna from its local ruler, Abu Bakr Lawik , and was recognised as governor by the Samanid administration. He died shortly after in 963, and was succeeded by his son, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim , who also became Sabuktigin's new master. After Abu Ishaq's brief reign and death in 966, the Turkic ghulams in Ghazna reconciled with

4050-418: The Samanid government but remained autonomous and chose their leaders from their commanders. During the successive reigns of Bilgetegin (966-975) and Böritigin (975-977), Sabuktigin increased his prestige among his troops. In 977, the citizens of Ghazna, tired of the unpopular Böritigin, invited Abu Ali Lawik , Abu Bakr's son, to rule their city. The Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul supported Lawik and sent

4140-479: The Samanid lands between themselves. Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi , in his history book Tarikh-i Bayhaqi , portrayed Sabuktigin as a just ruler, contrasting him with his patron and Sabuktigin's grandson, Masʽud I . Before him, al-Utbi had portrayed Sabuktigin as an approachable, forgiving and just ruler, to contrast him with Mahmud. However, according to the British orientalist Clifford Edmund Bosworth , no traits can be attributed to Sabuktigin's personality because of

4230-406: The Samanids returned to Bukhara. Hasan's cousin Ali b. Musa (title: Kara Khan or Arslan Khan) resumed the campaign against the Samanids, and by 999 Ali's son Nasr had taken Chach, Samarkand, and Bukhara. The Samanid domains were divided between the Ghaznavids , who gained Khorasan and Afghanistan , and the Karakhanids, who received Transoxiana. The Oxus River thus became the boundary between

4320-501: The Tarikh i Yamini, by Jurbadqani, takes many liberties and introduces images not found in the original and can be considered an independent work of art; however, it is a fairly reliable copy of the narrative. The Tarikh i Yamini was translated from Persian into English in 1858 by James Reynolds under the title, Kitab-i-Yamini . Sebuktigin Abu Mansur Nasir ad-Din wa'd-Dawla Sabuktigin ( Persian : ابومنصور ناصرالدین والدوله سبکتگین ; c. 940s – August-September 997)

4410-400: The Turks and engage in military conquests. In the mid-10th century, Satuq's son Musa began to put pressure on Khotan, and a long period of war between Kashgar and the Kingdom of Khotan ensued. Satok Bughra Khan's nephew or grandson Ali Arslan was said to have been killed by Buddhists during the war; during the reign of Ahmad b. Ali, the Karakhanids also engaged in wars against non-Muslims to

4500-409: The Yaghma, possible descendants of the Toquz Oghuz , joined forces and formed the first Karluk-Karakhanid khaganate. The Chigils appear to have formed the nucleus of the Karakhanid army. The date of its foundation and the name of its first khan is uncertain, but according to one reconstruction, the first Karakhanid ruler was Bilge Kul Qadir Khan . The rulers of the Karakhanids were likely to be from

4590-402: The administration of the western branch of the family that eventually led to a formal separation of the Khara-Khanid Khanate. Ibrahim Tamghach Khan was considered by Muslim historians as a great ruler, and he brought some stability to the Western Karakhanids by limiting the appanage system that caused much of the internal strife in the Kara-Khanid Khanate. The Hasan family remained in control of

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4680-560: The century by Qaratigin Isfijabi (d. 929), another rebellious Samanid ghulam . He continued his expansion into Qusdar in north-east Baluchistan and a number of frontier forts belonging to Shahi dynasty. With the backing of jihad as a casus belli , Sabuktigin raided the neighbouring Indian lands and destroyed Hindu temples, replacing them with mosques . The Shahi maharaja , Jayapala , placed Afghan garrisons in Multan and Laghman , but they joined Sabuktigin. His threat prompted Jayapala to form an alliance with

4770-415: The citizens of Bukhara revolted against the sadrs (leaders of the religious classes), which the Khwarazmshah 'Ala' ad-Din Muhammad used as a pretext to conquer Bukhara. Muhammad then formed an alliance with the Western Karakhanid ruler Uthman ibn Ibrahim (who later married Muhammad's daughter) against the Qara Khitai. In 1210, the Khwarezm-Shah took Samarkand after the Qara Khitai retreated to deal with

4860-491: The culture and traditions of the settled population of Transoxiana. During the excavations of the citadel of Samarkand, the ruins of the palace of the Karakhanid ruler Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202) were found. The palace was decorated with wall paintings. Numerous works of art and decorative objects are also known from the realm of the Kara-Khanids during the time of their rule (840–1212). Samarkand, with its old citadel of Afrasiab where many works of art have been excavated,

4950-464: The cultures of the Kara-Khanids and the Khwarezmians without much interruption. The Kara-Khanids translated the Quran into Middle Turkic . There are four surviving copies of the Quran translations found in various collections and a Middle Turkic excerpt of Al-Fatiha , which supposedly belong to the Kara-Khanid period. Kara-Khanid monarchs adopted Tamghaj Khan (Turkic for "Khan of China"; 桃花石汗 ) or Malik al-Mashriq wa-l’Sin (Arabic for "King of

5040-461: The east and northeast. Muslim accounts tell the tale of the four imams from Mada'in city (possibly now in Iraq) who travelled to help Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader, in his conquest of Khotan, Yarkend, and Kashgar. The "infidels" were said to have been driven towards Khotan, but the four Imams were killed. In 1006, Yusuf Qadir Khan of Kashgar conquered the Kingdom of Khotan, ending Khotan's existence as an independent state. The conquest of

5130-428: The end of the dynasty. The Khanate conquered Transoxiana in Central Asia and ruled it independently between 999 and 1089. Their arrival in Transoxiana signaled a definitive shift from Iranic to Turkic predominance in Central Asia, yet the Kara-khanids gradually assimilated the Perso-Arab Muslim culture , while retaining some of their native Turkic culture. The Khanate split into the Eastern and Western Khanates in

5220-590: The farmers and had pampered their production. Therefore, upon ascension, Sabuktigin's treasury was empty of gold and silver and reportedly only contained "swords and silks". Sabuktigin first ordered his commanders to give him gifts for his ascension, and then confiscated farming and iqta lands back into governmental domains, promising to pay his army from his treasury and from spoils of war, making his army dependent on him for their earnings. Sparse details remain about Sabuktigin's bureaucratic retinue; there are no recorded names of his vazirs (ministers), and it

5310-473: The father of Osman of Khwarazm fled from Karakhanid lands in the wake of the Qara Khitai invasion. Despite losing to the Qara Khitai, the Karakhanid dynasty remained in power as their vassals. The Qara Khitai themselves stayed at Zhetysu near Balasagun, and allowed some of the Karakhanids to continue to rule as their tax collectors in Samarkand and Kashgar. Under the Qara Khitai the Karakhanids functioned as administrators for sedentary Muslim populations. While

5400-440: The formation of two independent Karakhanid states. A son of Hasan Bughra Khan, Ali Tegin , seized control of Bukhara and other towns. He expanded his territory further after the death of Mansur. The son of Nasr, Böritigin , later waged war against the sons of Ali Tegin, and won control of a large part of Transoxiana, making Samarkand the capital. In 1041, another son of Nasr b. Ali, Muhammad 'Ayn ad-Dawlah (reigned 1041–52) took over

5490-416: The founder of the Mughal Empire , citing al-Utbi's work, sought to find a way to erupt a snowstorm just as Sabuktigin had done. Sabuktigin was the first Ghaznavid ruler to invade India. According to al-Biruni , he opened the gates of India for his successor, Mahmud. Sabuktigin's conquests facilitated the beginning of the Turko-Afghan period into India, which would be further conducted by Mahmud, and later

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5580-448: The founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, Sabuktigin was later idealized by Ghaznavid historians as a just and forgiving ruler, though these traits may have no basis in reality. He was the image of the "founding monarch" archetype , developed by historians such as Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi , who drew a contrast between the humble and just Sabuktigin with his successors. This conclusion was shared by later historians such as Nizam al-Mulk and lived all

5670-488: The latter as garrison. Throughout his reign, Sabuktigin acknowledged Samanid sovereignty, he minted the names of Samanid amirs before his own name in his coins, and used the title al-Hajib al-Ajall (Most Exalted Commander) to indicate his subordinate status. This display was only nominal, since he was not bound to any vassalage obligations. The Samanid amir , Nuh II , came to gradually rely on Sabuktigin's military for defense against Kara-Khanid Khanate in

5760-443: The local population began using Turkic in speech – initially the shift was linguistic with the local people adopting the Turkic language. While Central Asia became Turkicized over the centuries, culturally the Turks came close to being Persianized or, in certain respects, Arabicized. Nevertheless, the official or court language used in Kashgar and other Karakhanid centers, referred to as "Khaqani" (royal), remained Turkic. The language

5850-620: The north, who were a constant threat to his borders. In 994, Nuh requested Sabuktigin's help in subduing the rebellious Abu Ali Simjuri and his Kara-Khanid supporter, Fa'iq Khassa. Sabuktigin with his son Mahmud in tow, met Simjuri's army at Herat . During initial negotiations, Sabuktigin agreed to peace if only Abu Ali pledged obedience to Nuh II and paid a sum of 15 million dirhams as compensation. Abu Ali's warriors found these terms too humiliating and thus attacked Sabuktigin's army on their own. Fa'iq's men quickly disarrayed Sabuktigin's war elephants , which made him furious. The battle

5940-450: The rebellion from the Naiman Kuchlug, who had seized the Qara Khitans' treasury at Uzgen. The Khwarezm-Shah then defeated the Qara Khitai near Talas. Muhammad and Kuchlug had, apparently, agreed to divide up the Qara Khitan's empire. In 1212, the population of Samarkand staged a revolt against the Khwarezmians, a revolt which Uthman supported, and massacred them. The Khwarezm-Shah returned, recaptured Samarkand and executed Uthman. He demanded

6030-528: The reign of Ibrahim's grandson Ahmad b. Khidr, the Seljuks entered and took control of Samarkand, together with the domains belonging to the Western Khanate. For half a century, the Western Karakhanid Khanate was a vassal of the Seljuks, who largely controlled the appointment of the Khanate's rulers in that time. Ahmad b. Khidr was returned to power by the Seljuks, but in 1095, the ulama accused Ahmad of heresy and managed to secure his execution. The Karakhanids of Kashgar also declared their submission following

6120-406: The rule of the Tang dynasty prior to the Battle of Talas in 751, and the Kara-Khanid rulers continued to identify their dynasty with China several centuries later. Yusuf Qadir Khan sent the first Kara-Khanid envoy to the Song dynasty, Boyla Saghun, to request the Song to send an official envoy who would help 'pacify' Khotan, apparently seeking to use the prestige of the Chinese court to strengthen

6210-440: The submission of all leading Karakhanids, and finally extinguished the Western Karakhanid state. In 1204, a rebellion of the Eastern Kara-Khanid in Kashgar was suppressed by the Kara-Khitai who took the prince Yusuf hostage to Balasagun. The prince was later released but he was killed in Kashgar by rebels in 1211, effectively ending the Eastern Kara-Khanid. In 1214, the rebels in Kashgar surrendered to Kuchlug , who had usurped

6300-401: The submission of the Turgesh and they established their capital at Suyab on the Chu River . The Karluk confederation by now included the Chigil and Tukshi tribes who may have been Türgesh tribes incorporated into the Karluk union. The Karluks converted to Nestorian Christianity at the end of the 8th century CE, about 15 years after they established themselves in the Semerich'e region. This

6390-428: The sultan, therefore his topography is deficient and his writing style consists of an explicit orthodox nature. He also states that he intentionally suppressed many events, unnatural or strange that he found skeptical that did not fit the objectives he had set down in the preface. The Tarikh Yamini starts in 965 CE, but the Samanids are not mentioned until Nuh ibn Mansur's reign in 976, while it goes into detail about

6480-505: The treaty once he returned to his realm, causing Sabuktigin to march towards his realm with an army composed of Afghans and Khalajs in 988. Jayapala, who held some prestige among Indian rulers, mustered an army with the assistance of Delhi , Ajmer , Kalinjar and Kannauj . They again battled in Laghman , and this time Sabuktigin defeated Jayapala completely and captured the lands between Lamghan and Peshawar , housing 2000 horsemen in

6570-826: The two rival empires. The Karakhanid state was divided into appanages ( Ülüş system ), as was common of Turkic and Mongol nomads. The Karakhanid appanages were associated with four principal urban centers, Balasagun (then the capital of the Karakhanid state) in Zhetysu, Kashgar in Xinjiang, Uzgen in Fergana , and Samarkand in Transoxiana. The dynasty's original domains of Zhetysu and Kasgar and their khans retained an implicit seniority over those who ruled in Transoxiana and Fergana. The four sons of Ali (Ahmad, Nasr, Mansur, Muhammad) each held their own independent appanage within

6660-598: The way to Babur , the founding monarch of the Mughal Empire , who was influenced by Sabuktigin half a millennium after his death. Sabuktigin is a Turkic name meaning "beloved prince", however, during his era, the Old Turkic tegin had degenerated from "prince" to a synonym for Turkic slave commanders under the Abbasid service. His laqab ( agnomen ) Nasir ad-Din wa'd-Dawla means "Protector of

6750-642: The western Tarim Basin which includes Khotan and Kashgar is significant in the eventual Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin , and modern Uyghurs identify with the Karakhanids even though the name Uyghur was taken from the Manichaean Uyghur Khaganate and the Buddhist state of Qocho . Early in the 11th century the unity of the Karakhanid dynasty was fractured by frequent internal warfare that eventually resulted in

6840-494: The word Somnath, or the story respecting the idol broken by Mahmud, although the expedition in which this event is alleged to have occurred, appears to be included in this Chronicle of Utbi. Original Al-Utbi - Tarikh Yamini in Arabic is short book of 70 pages only. English version by James Reynold consist of 555 pages cannot be verbatim exact copy. Hence, Abdul Sharaf of Jabardican who translated it to Persian added his own interpretation. The 13th century Persian translation of

6930-509: Was a mass conversion of the Turks (reportedly "200,000 tents of the Turks"), and circumstantial evidence suggests these were the Karakhanids. The grandson of Satuk Bughra Khan, Hasan b. Sulayman (or Harun) (title: Bughra Khan) attacked the Samanids in the late 10th century. Between 990 and 992, Hasan took Isfijab , Ferghana , Ilaq , Samarkand , and the Samanid capital Bukhara . However, Hasan Bughra Khan died in 992 due to an illness, and

7020-678: Was a victory for Abu Ali until one of his allies, the Ziyarid prince Dara who ruled Gorgan , deserted his army and joined Sabuktigin. Abu Ali and Fa'iq fled towards Gorgan to seek help from their ally, Fakhr al-Dawla (Dara's overlord). For their victory, Sabuktigin and Mahmud were rewarded with laqabs and Mahmud became the commander of the army of Khorasan. In 995, Fa'iq and Abu Ali invaded Nishapur , and when Sabuktigin arrived, instead of fighting him, asked for forgiveness. Sabuktigin refused and launched an attack. His war elephants crushed many of Abu Ali's soldiers and chief commanders. Abu Ali

7110-467: Was befitting that a descendant of Alp-Tegin would rule Ghazna. For Nasr, he left Bust, and since Mahmud was commanding the army of Khorasan, Sabuktigin could not bestow him any titles and left nothing for him. In 998, during a succession struggle, Mahmud deposed Ismail and took his place. In 999, his invasion of Khorasan, along with Kara-Khanid's intrusion from north, finally put an end to the Samanid Empire, after which, Mahmud and Nasr ibn Ali partitioned

7200-641: Was bought by Alp-Tegin , himself a slave and a prominent commander. Sebuktigin quickly became integrated in the Persian community around him, despite being a stranger at first. He flourished under Alp-Tegin's patronage and by the age of eighteen, commanded 200 ghulams (military slaves). At the time, Alp-Tegin served as the head of the royal guard of the Samanid dynasty, but in 962, after he fell from grace, he left his position and sought to establish an independent rule in Ghazna , in present-day eastern Afghanistan . Sabuktigin accompanied him and helped defeating

7290-422: Was called Qara Bechkem, and through a fabricated genealogy, links him to the last Sasanian shahanshah , Yazdegerd III ( r.  632–651 ), claiming his daughter married a Turkic chief. Sabuktigin recounts that his tribe was raided and he, along with all the women and the children, was captured. His captors, a rival Karluk tribe, sold him at a slave market at Nakhshab (modern-day Qarshi ). Later, he

7380-469: Was conquered by the Kara-Khanids between 990 and 992, and held until 1212 (11th–12th centuries): Kara-Khanid is arguably the most enduring cultural heritage among coexisting cultures in Central Asia from the 9th to the 13th centuries. The Karluk-Uyghur dialect spoken by the nomadic tribes and Turkified sedentary populations under Kara-Khanid rule formed two major branches of the Turkic language family,

7470-507: Was devised by European Orientalists in the 19th century to describe both the dynasty and the Turks ruled by it. The Kara-Khanid Khanate originated from a confederation formed some time in the 9th century by Karluks , Yagmas , Chigils , Tuhsi , and other peoples living in Zhetysu , Western Tian Shan (modern Kyrgyzstan ), and Western Xinjiang around Kashgar . 10th-century Arab historian Al-Masudi listed two "Khagan of Khagans" of

7560-548: Was imprisoned in 996 and was killed in 997 on Sabuktigin's order. Sabuktigin put forth a set of reforms regarding the iqta system in his realm. During Alp-Tegin's tenure, soldiers earned their pay through plunder and raids, but from his death to Sabuktigin's ascension, payment from raids ceased and soldiers turned to iqta as a source of income. Gradually, the soldiers turned their iqta lands into independent ownerships and grew disinclined to fight for their ruler. Moreover, their dominance upon farming lands burdened

7650-583: Was partly based on dialects spoken by the Turkic tribes that made up the Karakhanids and possessed qualities of linear descent from Kök and Karluk Turkic. The Turkic script was also used for all documents and correspondence of the khaqans, according to Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk . The Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk (Dictionary of Languages of the Turks) was written by a prominent Karakhanid historian, Mahmud al-Kashgari , who may have lived for some time in Kashgar at

7740-479: Was still a child at the time of his death. He also had a daughter called Hurra-yi Khuttali who later married two rulers of Khwarazm from the Ma'munid dynasty : Abu al-Hasan Ali and Ma'mun II . Though there are no given birth dates, Ismail seems to have been his youngest adult son, born from a daughter of Alp-Tegin. His maternal lineage may have influenced Sabuktigin to pass Ghazna onto Ismail upon his death, since it

7830-542: Was succeeded by Mansur, and after the death of Mansur, the Hasan Bughra Khan branch of the Karakhanids became dominant. Hasan's sons Muhammad Toghan Khan II, and Yusuf Kadir Khan who held Kashgar , became in turn the head of the Karakhanid dynasty. The two families, i.e. , the descendants of Ali Arslan Khan and Hasan Bughra Khan, would eventually split the Karakhanid Khanate in two. In 1017–1018,

7920-582: Was the first ruler to bring Islam into the northwest India . He believed in the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam and converted into a Hanafite sect called the Karramiyya . According to Bosworth, the reason for his conversion was his entrancement with the Karramiyya leader, the ascetic Abu Ya'qub Ishaq ibn Mahmudshadh (d. 993). In 996, Nuh II again requested Sabuktigin's support against Nasr ibn Ali,

8010-580: Was the first time the Church of the East received such major sponsorship by an eastern power. Remains of a Nestorian church have been found in the Karluk capital of Suyab , as well as hundreds of tomstones with Nestorian Syriac inscriptions in the Semerich'e region. By the mid-9th century, the Karluk confederation had gained control of the sacred lands of the Western Türks after the destruction of

8100-614: Was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty , and amir of Ghazna from 977 to 997. Sabuktigin was a Turkic slave who was bought by Alp-Tegin , the commander of the royal guard of the Samanid dynasty . Alp-Tegin established himself as the governor of Ghazna in 962, and died a year later in 963. Afterwards, Sabuktigin built his prestige among other slave soldiers in Ghazna until he was elected by them as their ruler in 977. Sabuktigin expanded his rule down to south of present-day Afghanistan and north of Balochistan . Through conflicts with

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