107-488: Tashkurgan , historically known as Sarikol and Shitoucheng , is a town in the far west of China, close to the country's border with Tajikistan . It is seat of Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County , in the autonomous region of Xinjiang . Chinese Tajiks – ethnic Pamiris who live in the Pamir Mountains of Xinjiang – make up a little over half of Tashkurgan's population. Tashkurgan
214-555: A baby about three months old who was not hers. They are labelled as dating from the Bronze Age to the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). The mummies were discovered in the nearby Xiabandi Valley on the old caravan route to Yarkand . The valley has now been flooded for a hydro-electric project. Tashkurgan is the seat of Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County . It is situated at an altitude of 3,090 metres (10,140 ft) on
321-516: A collection of Yuezhi tribes, took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism , Nestorian Christianity , Zoroastrianism , and Manichaeism were practised in the region. Later the Hephthalite Empire , a collection of nomadic tribes, moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the eighth century. The Samanid Empire , 819 to 999, restored Persian control of
428-790: A definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia, and gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region. In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded the Khwarezmian Empire and sacked its cities, looting and massacring people. Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire , becoming
535-766: A great contribution to liberation of Xinjiang and China". On 22 August, five leaders of the Three Districts, Ehmetjan Qasimi, Abdulkerim Abbas , Ishaq Beg Munonov , Luo Zhi and Dalelkhan Sugirbayev , boarded a Soviet plane in Almaty and were headed for Chita but were said to have perished in a plane accident near Lake Baikal, a crash was widely suspected to be an assassination ordered by Joseph Stalin . On 3 September three other former ETR leaders, including Saifuddin Azizi , arrived in Beijing by train and agreed to join
642-621: A history of military service with Soviet-associated forces. The Soviets supplied the INA with ammunition and Russian-style uniforms, and Soviet troops directly helped INA troops fight against the Chinese forces. The INA uniforms and flags all had insignia with the Russian acronym for "East Turkestan Republic", ВТР in Cyrillic (Восточная Туркестанская Республика). The Soviets admitted their support of
749-753: A prayer on the snow-covered ground after he had parked his car on the road after a defeat inflicted upon the Ili National Army. The conflict ended with the arrival of the Chinese Communists in the region in 1949. On 19 August 1949, Mao Zedong , the leader of the Chinese Communists, invited the leaders of the Three Districts to attend the Inaugural Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference to be held in Beijing . Mao telegrammed, "You did
856-582: A pro-Kuomintang Uyghur who was anti-Soviet. Sabri was close to conservatives in the CC Clique of the Kuomintang and undid all of Zhang Zhizhong's pro-minority reforms, which set off revolts and riots among the Uyghurs in oases like Turfan . The Turkic (Uyghurs) were subjected to Soviet propaganda. Achmad (Ehmetjan Qasim) was strongly against Masud Sabri becoming governor. Ehmetjan Qasim (Achmad-Jan),
963-443: A result praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative. The ceasefire guaranteed 30% of ministerial positions would go to the opposition . Elections were held in 1999 and were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair; Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote. Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon (with 79% of the vote) and he began his third term in office. Opposition parties boycotted
1070-492: A version of this, current at the time of his visit, in which the princess is the daughter of the Persian king Naushīrvān. The Princess Castle is believed to be located 70 kilometres (43 mi) south of the town near Chalachigu Valley. Stein argued that, judging from the topography and remains found around Tashkurgan, the fort and associated settlements had clearly been central to the broader Sarikol area, controlling routes from
1177-531: Is China's closest airport to Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. The airport offers one flight to Kashgar every day. Today Tashkurgan is on the Karakoram Highway which follows the old Silk Road route from China to Pakistan . Accommodation is available and it is a recommended overnight stop for road travellers from China to Pakistan, in order to have the best chance of crossing the snow-prone Khunjerab Pass in daylight. Special registration with
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#17327727122111284-521: Is a presidential republic consisting of four provinces . Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country, and their national language is Tajik . Russian is used as the official inter-ethnic language. While the state is constitutionally secular, Islam is nominally adhered to by 97.5% of the population. In the Gorno-Badakhshan oblast , there is a linguistic diversity where Rushani , Shughni , Ishkashimi , Wakhi and Tajik are some of
1391-500: Is tolerated and all direct protest is suppressed and denied coverage in the local media. In the 2020 Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit , Tajikistan was ranked 160th, after Saudi Arabia , while receiving the designation of "authoritarian regime". In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter to UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in
1498-572: Is used. Tadzhikistan is the alternate spelling and is used in English literature derived from Russian sources. While the Library of Congress 's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranic peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia," scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are
1605-584: The Encyclopædia Britannica states: The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranic peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time,
1712-524: The Weilüe of the Kingdom of Manli ( 滿犁 ) probably also refer to Tashkurgan. Some scholars believe that Tashkurgan is the "Stone Tower " mentioned by Ptolemy in his famous treatise Geography , which is said to have marked the midway point between Europe and China on the old Silk Road . Other scholars, however, disagree with this identification, though it remains one of the four most probable sites for
1819-651: The Ayni Air Base , a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $ 70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010. It is the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility, and Russia continues to maintain a base on the outskirts of Dushanbe. In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in
1926-554: The Basmachi movement . Some industrial development occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure. Two rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938 ) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan . Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including
2033-671: The Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand . Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets). During the 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. While the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian,
2140-650: The Ili region of Xinjiang had close cultural, political and economic ties with Russia and later the Soviet Union. Many of them were educated in the Soviet Union, and a community of Russian settlers lived in the region. As a result, many of the Turkic rebels fled to the Soviet Union and obtained Soviet assistance in creating the Sinkiang Turkic People's Liberation Committee (STPNLC) in 1943 to revolt against
2247-733: The Islamic State . Khalimov was allegedly killed on 8 September 2017 during a Russian airstrike near Deir ez-Zor , Syria , although Tajikistan authorities express doubts whether he has died. In 2021, following the Fall of Kabul , Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan . In September 2022 armed clashes , including
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#17327727122112354-767: The Khunjerab Pass and flows north along the Karakoram Highway to Tashkurgan. Just north of Tashkurgan it turns east and flows through a gorge to the Tarim Basin where it joins the Yarkand River . Tashkurgan has a cold desert climate ( Köppen BWk ), influenced by the high elevation, with long, very cold winters, and warm summers. Monthly daily average temperatures range from −11.9 °C (10.6 °F) in January to 16.4 °C (61.5 °F) in July, while
2461-769: The Kuomintang to destroy the Mongols and the Russians in 1947. Salar Muslim General Han Youwen's 1st Division received at Beitashan Osman's forces after he retreated in battle. Qitai County had the headquarters of the Han Youwen's 1st Division of the 5th Army in 1946. The following year, during the Beitashan Incident, Ma Xizhen fought the Mongols. During the war against the Ili separatists, Han Youwen performed
2568-525: The Republic of Tajikistan , is a landlocked country in Central Asia . Dushanbe is the capital and most populous city. Tajikistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the south , Uzbekistan to the west , Kyrgyzstan to the north , and China to the east . It is separated from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor . It has a population of approximately 10.6 million people. The territory
2675-667: The Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara , the Timurid Renaissance flourished. The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire , before becoming part of the Soviet Union . Within the Soviet Union, the country's borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a constituent republic of the Soviet Union on 5 December 1929. On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as
2782-652: The Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi’ , denoting a Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD. Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from the Russian : "Таджикистан" . In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme /d͡ʒ/ , and therefore дж , or dzh,
2889-581: The Xinjiang region. In October 2020, President Emomali Rahmon was re-elected for another seven-year term with 90% of the vote, following a largely ceremonial election. In April 2021, a conflict over water with Kyrgyzstan escalated into one of the border clashes between the two countries since independence. Ili Rebellion [REDACTED] National Revolutionary Army The Ili Rebellion ( simplified Chinese : 伊宁事变 ; traditional Chinese : 伊寧事變 ; pinyin : Yīníng Shìbiàn )
2996-411: The 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire ) began to conquer parts of the region. Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire 's conquest of Central Asia during the 19th century's Imperial Era . Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan , the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by
3103-788: The 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) criticised it, while observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent. Rahmon's administration came under further criticism from OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to
3210-554: The Chinese military threw up rings of defences around the area and sent Chinese Muslim cavalry to halt the advance of the Turkic Muslim rebels. Thousands of Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Bufang and his nephew General Ma Chengxiang poured into Xinjiang from Qinghai to combat the Soviet and Turkic Uyghur forces. Much of the Ili army and equipment originated from the Soviet Union. The Ili army pushed Chinese forces across
3317-595: The Chinese regime. He served with Osman Batur and his Kazakh forces in fighting the ETR Ili Uyghur and Soviet forces. The acting Soviet consul at Chenghua, Dipshatoff, directed the Red Army in aiding ETR Ili forces against Osman's Kazakhs. The ETR forces in the Ashan zone were attacked, defeated and killed by Osman's Kazakh forces during a Chinese-supported offensive in September 1947. Osman's Kazakhs seized most of
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3424-589: The ETR (the resolution used 'East Turkestan' to denote Xinjiang Province). The unpopular Governor Wu Zhongxin was replaced after the ceasefire with Zhang Zhizhong , who implemented pro-minority policies to placate the Uyghur population. Bai Chongxi , the Defense Minister of China and a Muslim, was considered for appointment in 1947 as Governor of Xinjiang, but the position was given instead to Masud Sabri ,
3531-634: The East Turkestan Republic were Soviet agents or affiliated with the Soviet Union, like Abdulkerim Abbas, Ishaq Beg, Saifuddin Azizi and the White Russians F. Leskin, A. Polinov and Glimkin. When the rebels ran into trouble taking the vital Airambek airfield from the Chinese, Soviet military forces directly intervened and helped to mortar Airambek and to reduce the Chinese stronghold. The rebels engaged in massacres of Han Chinese civilians, especially targeting people affiliated with
3638-543: The Han civilians in its area. The massacres against the Han occurred mostly in 1944–1945, with the KMT responding in kind by torturing, killing, and mutilating ETR prisoners. In territory controlled by the ETR like Kulja, various repressive measures were carried out, such as establishing a Soviet-style secret police organization, barring Han from owning weapons, and making Russian and Turkic languages official to replace Chinese. While
3745-722: The Islamist-led opposition, a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999. "Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times before the country's November 2006 presidential election. The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates
3852-733: The KMT, which was formerly the Gansu 5th Cavalry Army. A ceasefire was declared in early June 1946, with the Second East Turkestan Republic in control of Ili and the Chinese in control of the rest of Xinjiang, including Ürümqi. On 27 June 1946, the Interim Government of the East Turkestan Republic passed Resolution 324 to transform the Interim Government of the East Turkestan Republic into the Ili District Council of Xinjiang Province and dissolve
3959-552: The Kuomintang and Sheng Shicai. In the "Kulja Declaration" issued on 5 January 1945, the East Turkestan Republic proclaimed that it would "sweep away the Han Chinese" and threatened to extract a "blood debt" from the Han. The ETR also declared that it would seek to establish especially-cordial ties with the Soviets. The ETR later de-emphasized the anti-Han tone in its official proclamations after it had finished massacring most of
4066-407: The Kuomintang rule in Ili. The pro-Soviet Uyghur who later became leader of the revolt, Ehmetjan Qasim , was Soviet-educated and described as "Stalin's man" and as a "Communist-minded progressive". The rebels assaulted Kulja on 7 November 1944, rapidly took over parts of the city, and massacred Kuomintang troops. However, the rebels encountered fierce resistance from Kuomintang forces holed up in
4173-451: The Oxus to the oases of southern Turkestan. Xuanzang describes a substantial Buddhist site with tall towers, leading Stein to speculate as to whether the pilgrimage site dedicated to Shāh Auliya, several hundred yards to the northeast of the town site, and in use at the time of his visit, might have seen continuous but changing local use as a holy site down the centuries. During the Ili Rebellion from 1944 to 1949, Uyghur forces slaughtered
4280-410: The Pakistani towns of Sust and Gilgit has existed for many years, and road service between Kashgar and Gilgit (via Tashkurgan and Sust) started in summer 2006. However, the border crossing between China and Pakistan at Khunjerab Pass (the highest border of the world) is open only between 1 May and 15 October. During winter, the roads are blocked by snow. Tajikistan Tajikistan , officially
4387-461: The People’s Republic of China, which was founded on 1 October. The deaths of the other former ETR leaders were not announced until December, after the Chinese Communists' People's Liberation Army (PLA) had control of northern Xinjiang and had reorganized the military forces of the Three Districts into the PLA. Several former ETR commanders joined the PLA. On 25 September, the Nationalist leaders in Dihua, Tao Zhiyue and Burhan Shahidi , announced
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4494-421: The Republic of China government under Chiang Kai-shek . Kadeer and her family were close friends with White Russian exiles living in Xinjiang and Kadeer recalled that many Uyghurs thought Russian culture was "more advanced" than that of the Uyghurs and they "respected" the Russians a lot. There was a split in the East Turkestan Independence Movement between two branches, one of them pro-Soviet and supported by
4601-463: The Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian. Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I . While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout
4708-428: The Samanid state under one ruler, thus putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponded approximately with what later would be Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211. Their arrival in Transoxania signalled
4815-437: The Soviet "Eighth Regiment" in Hami, and Soviet technicians and engineers flooded the province. During the Second World War , the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China sought to undermine the Soviet presence in Xinjiang and to retake the province from Soviet control. The Kuomintang worked with the Hui Muslim Ma Clique warlord of Qinghai, General Ma Bufang , to build up its military forces around Xinjiang and to increase
4922-484: The Soviet Union and the other being anti-Soviet pan-Turkic and having members based in Turkey and western countries. The Pan-Turkist ones were the three Effendis, (ئۈچ ئەپەندى; Üch Äpändi) Aisa Alptekin, Memtimin Bughra, and Masud Sabri. The Second East Turkestan Republic attacked them as Kuomintang "puppets". Anti-Soviet sentiment was espoused by Isa, and pro-Soviet sentiment was espoused by Burhan . The Soviets were angered by Isa. Violence broke out between supporters of
5029-457: The Soviet Union sent a telegram back to Washington, DC, in which he said that the situations in Iranian Azerbaijan and in Xinjiang were similar. According to her autobiography, Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China , Rebiya Kadeer 's father served with pro-Soviet Uyghur rebels under the Second East Turkestan Republic in the Ili Rebellion (Three Province Rebellion) in 1944 to 1946, using Soviet assistance and aid to fight
5136-404: The Soviet Union was disintegrating . A civil war was fought after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led since 1994 by Emomali Rahmon , who heads an authoritarian regime and whose human rights record has been criticised. Tajikistan
5243-420: The Soviet authorities. Isa's anti-Soviet sentiment drew Soviet ire, while pro-Soviet sentiment was espoused by Burhan . The Uyghur linguist Ibrahim Muti'i opposed the Second East Turkestan Republic and was against the Ili Rebellion because it was backed by the Soviets and Stalin. The former ETR leader Saifuddin Azizi later apologized to Ibrahim and admitted that his opposition to the East Turkestan Republic
5350-426: The Soviet secret police threatened to assassinate Muslim leaders from Ining and put pressure on them to flee to "inner China" via Tihwa (Ürümqi). White Russians grew fearful of Muslim mobs as they chanted, "We freed ourselves from the yellow men, now we must destroy the white." After the Mongolian People's Republic became involved in a border dispute with the Republic of China, a Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment
5457-410: The Soviet-supported rebellion in Sarikol from August 1945 to 46 by defeating the siege of the "tribesman" around Yarkand when they had risen up in rebellion in Nanchiang around Sarikol and by killing Red Army officers. The Chinese Muslim Ma Clique warlord of Qinghai , Ma Bufang , was sent with his cavalry to Ürümqi by the Kuomintang in 1945 to protect it from the Uyghur rebels of Ili. In 1945,
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#17327727122115564-604: The Stone Tower. Centuries later Tashkurgan became the capital of the Sarikol Kingdom located in the Pamir Mountains , and later of Qiepantuo ( 謁盤陀 ) under the Persian Empire . At the northeast corner of the town is a huge fortress known as the Tashkurgan Fort dating from the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368 CE) and the subject of many colourful local legends. A ruined fire temple is near the fortress. The Buddhist monk Xuanzang passed through Tashkurgan around 649 CE, on his way to Khotan from Badakhshan, as did Song Yun around 500 CE. When British archaeologist Aurel Stein passed through
5671-436: The Tungan (Hui) 5th and 42nd Cavalry were sent from Qinghai to Xinjiang, where they reinforced the KMT 2nd Army, made up of four divisions. Their combined forces totalled 100,000 Hui and Han troops, who served under KMT command in 1945. It was reported the Soviets was eager to "liquidate" Ma Bufang. General Ma Chengxiang , another Hui Ma Clique officer and nephew of Ma Bufang, commanded the 1st Cavalry Division in Xinjiang under
5778-576: The Uyghur Ili leader, demanded that Sabri be sacked as governor as one of the conditions for his agreeing to visit Nanjing. All races in the Ili region were forcibly conscripted into the Uyghur Ili army, except the Han. The Uyghurs and Soviets massacred ethnic Han living in Ili and drove them from the region. Salar Muslim General Han Youwen , who served under Ma Bufang, commanded the Pau-an-dui (保安隊; pacification soldiers), composed of three 340-man battalions. They were composed of men of many groups, including Kazakhs , Mongols and White Russians serving
5885-464: The Uyghur Ili regime, and the Soviet Union and were preserved by American agents and sent to Washington, DC. The Soviet Union set up a similar puppet state in Pahlavi dynasty Iran in the form of the Azerbaijan People's Government and Republic of Mahabad The Soviet Union used comparable methods and tactics in both Xinjiang and Iran when it established the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad and Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. The American Ambassador to
5992-415: The Western Regions recounts a tale which might explain the name of Princess Castle, a tourist attraction near Tashkurgan: A Han Chinese princess on her way to marry a Persian king is placed on a high rock for safety during local unrest. She becomes pregnant from a mysterious stranger, ultimately giving birth to a powerful king and founding the royal line ruling at the time of Xuanzang's visit. Stein records
6099-457: The annual mean is 3.58 °C (38.4 °F). An average of only 68 millimetres (2.68 in) of precipitation falls per year. As of 2019, the town included six residential communities ( Mandarin Chinese pinyin -derived names ): As of 2009, there were three residential communities: As the area is remote from populated regions, it is served by Tashiku'ergan Hongqilafu Airport , which opened on 23 December 2022, with 3800 meter runway . It
6206-464: The border should be about 40 miles to the north of the mountains". Chinese Muslim and Turkic Kazakh forces working for the Kuomintang fought Soviet Russian and Mongol troops. In June 1947 the Mongols and the Soviets launched an attack against the Kazakhs and drove them back to the Chinese side. However, fighting continued for another year, with 13 clashes taking place between 5 June 1947 and July 1948. Elite Qinghai Chinese Muslim cavalry were sent by
6313-477: The borders of both Afghanistan and Tajikistan , and close to the borders of Kyrgyzstan and Pakistan . Tashkurgan is a market town for sheep, wool and woollen goods, particularly carpets, and is surrounded by orchards. The majority population in the town are Chinese Tajiks . The majority of people in the region speak Sarikoli . There is also a village of Wakhi speakers . Mandarin Chinese and Uyghur are also spoken. The Tashkurgan River begins just north of
6420-544: The cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers. Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks , French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO 's International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan . United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration. The Government of India rebuilt
6527-423: The country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010. Fighting erupted again, this time in and around Gorno-Badakhshan, in July 2012. In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan. In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security underwent a setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov , commander of the special-purpose police unit (OMON) of the Interior Ministry, defected to
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#17327727122116634-615: The descendants of the Eastern Iranic inhabitants of Central Asia , in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians and possibly other groups. In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranic or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them." Regarding Tajiks,
6741-411: The difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment. The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms. Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate
6848-407: The early part of this conflict in 1992, after Nabiyev was forced at gunpoint on 7 September 1992 to resign from office. Rahmon defeated former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote. In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D. Merrem, Special Representative to the Secretary General,
6955-421: The east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September, and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers, followed by fighting outside Gharm that left three militants dead. The country's Interior Ministry insisted that the central government maintained full control over
7062-453: The eastern Iranic dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Tajiki . Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex , the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most, if not all, of Tajikistan
7169-450: The election process and unemployment. Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a majority. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards." The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect
7276-427: The establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic . The leadership was dominated by Uyghurs but the population consisted mostly of Kazakhs . The Soviet Union installed Sheng Shicai as its puppet ruler in Xinjiang in the 1934 Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang and later further entrenched its position in the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937) . Soviet Red Army forces were stationed in Xinjiang oases , such as
7383-408: The first ruler of the Timurid dynasty in and around what later became Tajikistan and Central Asia. What later became Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and, with the empire's collapse in the 18th century, it came under the rule of the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand . The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century. During
7490-540: The formal surrender of the Nationalist forces in Xinjiang to the Chinese Communists. On 12 October, the Communist People's Liberation Army entered Xinjiang. Many other Kuomintang generals in Xinjiang like the Salar Muslim General Han Youwen joined in the defection to the PLA. They continued to serve in the PLA as officers in Xinjiang. Other Nationalist leaders who refused to submit fled to Taiwan or Turkey . Ma Chengxiang fled via India to Taiwan. Muhammad Amin Bughra and Isa Yusuf Alptekin fled to Turkey. Masud Sabri
7597-408: The harassing forces of the Dalai Lama and escaped via India to Taiwan to join the Republic of China, which appointed him the governor of Xinjiang Province in exile. The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the PRC was established on 1 October 1955, replacing the Xinjiang Province (1884–1955). Multiple telegrams were exchanged among the Chinese government, the Mongolians, the American government,
7704-459: The incumbent", Rahmon. Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, and independent press outlets remain restricted, as does an amount of web content. According to the Institute for War & Peace Reporting , access to local and foreign websites is blocked, and journalists are sometimes obstructed from reporting on some events. In practice, no public criticism of the regime
7811-536: The languages spoken. Mountains cover more than 90% of the country. It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is dependent on remittances , and on production of aluminium and cotton . Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations , CIS , OSCE , OIC , ECO , SCO , CSTO and a NATO PfP partner . The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tāzīk ,
7918-475: The livestock of Chinese Tajiks as they advanced south. In 1959, Tashkurgan Commune ( 塔什库尔干公社 ) was established. In 1984, Tashkurgan Commune became Tashkurgan Town. A number of residential communities have been added to and removed from Tashkurgan for census purposes. In 2010–2011, the residential communities of Bulakegale ( 布拉克尕勒社区 ) and Xudong ( 旭东社区 ) were added to the town and Kuonabazha ( 阔纳巴扎社区 ) and Yingshahai'er ( 英沙海尔社区 ) were removed. In 2016–2017,
8025-655: The non-Muslim Tungusic peoples like the Xibe played a large role in helping the rebels by supplying them with crops, the local Muslim Tungan (Hui) in Ili gave an insignificant and negligible contribution to the rebels or did not assist them at all. The Ili National Army (INA), which was established on 8 April 1945 as the military arm of the ETR, was led by the Kirghiz Ishaq Beg and the White Russians Polinov and Leskin. All three were pro-Soviet and had
8132-570: The north, Kargilik to the east, Badakhshan and Wakhan to the west, and Chitral and Hunza to the southwest (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan , Pakistan). About 2,000 years ago, during the Han dynasty , Tashkurgan was the main centre of the Kingdom of Puli ( 蒲犁 ) mentioned in the Book of Han and the Book of the Later Han . Later it became known as Varshadeh . Mentions in
8239-544: The plains and reached Kashgar, Kaghlik and Yarkand. However, the Uyghurs in the oases gave no support to the Soviet-backed rebels and, as a result, the Chinese Army expelled them. The Ili rebels then butchered livestock belonging to Kirghiz and Tajiks of Xinjiang . The Soviet-backed insurgents destroyed Tajik and Kirghiz crops and moved aggressively against the Tajiks and Kirghiz of China. The Chinese beat back
8346-523: The police must be made before entering Tashkurgan, and Chinese citizens must receive written permission from their local police department before entering the region. Travelling from Xinjiang, it is about 230 kilometres (140 mi) south of Kashgar and is the last town before the border with Pakistan . It is 120 kilometres (75 mi) over the Khunjerab Pass from Sust , which is the Pakistani border town. Passenger road service between Tashkurgan and
8453-695: The power and central police stations and did not take them until the 13th. The creation of the "East Turkestan Republic" (ETR) was declared on the 15th. The Soviet Army assisted the Ili Uyghur army in capturing several towns and airbases. Non-communist Russians like the White Russians and Russian settlers who had lived in Xinjiang since the 19th century also helped the Soviet Red Army and the Ili Army rebels and suffered heavy losses. Many leaders of
8560-464: The pressure on Sheng Shicai and the Soviets. In 1942, Sheng Shicai switched his allegiance to the Kuomintang after major Soviet defeats at the hands of the Germans in the war, and all Soviet Red Army military forces and technicians residing in the province were expelled. The Republic of China National Revolutionary Army units and soldiers belonging to Ma Bufang moved into Xinjiang to take control of
8667-403: The province. Ma helped the Kuomintang build roadways linking Qinghai and Xinjiang, which helped both of them bring Xinjiang under their influence. In 1944, the Soviets took advantage of discontent among the Turkic peoples of the Ili region in northern Xinjiang to support a rebellion against Kuomintang rule in the province to reassert Soviet influence in the region. Many of the Turkic peoples of
8774-522: The rebels decades later by transmitting a radio broadcast in Uyghur from Radio Tashkent into Xinjiang on 14 May 1967 that boasted that the Soviets had trained and armed the ETR forces against China. Thousands of Soviet troops assisted Turkic rebels in fighting the Chinese army. In October 1945, suspected Soviet planes attacked Chinese positions. As the Soviet Red Army and Turkic Uyghur Ili Army advanced with Soviet air support against poorly-prepared Chinese forces, they almost succeeded in reaching Ürümqi, but
8881-626: The region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara , which became the cultural centers of Iran ; the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing Afghanistan, parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united
8988-401: The residential community Xingfu ( 幸福社区 ) was added to the town. In 2017–2018, the residential community Hongqi ( 红旗社区 ) was added to the town. In 2018–2019, the residential community Shajilin ( 沙棘林社区 ) was added to the town. In Tashkurgan there is a museum that houses a few local artifacts, a photographic display and, in the basement, two mummies – one of a young woman about 18 and another of
9095-801: The top position of first secretary. Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%. Bobojon Ghafurov , First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the republic during the Soviet Era. Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000 (4%) and 120,000 (8%) of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II. Following
9202-504: The town in the early twentieth century he was pleased to find that Tashkurgan matched the descriptions left by those travellers: discussing Qiepantuo, Xuanzang recorded (in Samuel Beal 's translation): "This country is about 200 li in circuit; the capital rests on a great rocky crag of the mountain, and is backed by the river Śitâ. It is about 20 li in circuit." Xuanzang's discussion of Qiepantuo in book twelve of Great Tang Records on
9309-483: The town was Shitoucheng ( 石頭城 ), which literally means "stone city" in the context of a fortified city . The town has historically been known as Sarikol ( سريكال ), also spelled Sariqol ( سرقول ) or Sariq Qol ( ساريق قول ). The modern Uyghur name of the town is Tashqurghan ( تاشقورغان ). Tashkurgan has a long history as a stop on the Silk Road . Major caravan routes converged here leading to Kashgar in
9416-521: The towns in the Ashan zone from the ETR. Ma Chengxiang was the commander of the 5th Cavalry Unit, which was stationed in Xinjiang. Over 60,000 soldiers were in the Ili army according to Gen. Sung. Ma Chengxiang, a Kuomintang Chinese Muslim general and the nephew of Ma Bufang, allegedly commanded his Chinese Muslim cavalry to massacre Uyghurs during an uprising in 1948 in Turfan. The Kuomintang CC Clique employed countermeasures in Xinjiang to prevent
9523-456: The traditionalist religious Uyghurs in the oases in southern Xinjiang from defecting to the pro-Soviet ETR Uyghurs in Ili in northern Xinjiang. The Kuomintang allowed three anti-Soviet Pan-Turkic nationalist Uyghurs, Masud Sabri , Muhammad Amin Bughra and Isa Yusuf Alptekin , to write and publish pan-Turkic nationalist propaganda to incite the Turkic peoples against the Soviets, greatly angering
9630-548: The two top per capita income groups, and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people. By the 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is celebrated as the country's Independence Day . In February 1990, riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to
9737-532: The unrest. Following independence, the nation fell into civil war among factions distinguished by clan loyalties. Regional groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan. led by a combination of liberal democratic reformers and Islamists , who eventually became the United Tajik Opposition , rose up against the newly formed government of President Rahmon Nabiyev , which
9844-534: The use of artillery, erupted along most of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In 2023, according to the World Health Organization , Tajikistan received its certification, declaring its a status as a malaria -free country. After independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war. Factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan , Iran, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in
9951-537: The war and the end of Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan. During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev 's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics . In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR, the lowest percentage of households in
10058-484: The warring nation to decrease the chances of U.S. or Turkish involvement. Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border. All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and
10165-504: The will of the Tajik people. The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism , which is evident in bordering Afghanistan . The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party . Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed
10272-530: The year in various locations in Tajikistan. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi , waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence. The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation. Practising Islam , Judaism , and Christianity
10379-631: Was a separatist uprising by the Turkic peoples of northern Xinjiang ( East Turkestan ) against the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China , from 1944 to 1946. The Ili Rebellion began with the East Turkestan National Revolution, known in Chinese historiography as the Three Districts Revolution ( simplified Chinese : 三区革命 ; traditional Chinese : 三區革命 ; pinyin : Sān-qū Gémìng ; Uyghur : ئۈچ ۋىلايەت ئىنقىلابى ), which saw
10486-492: Was a significant stop on the Silk Road , with roads leading to major centers of trade such as Kashgar . It also served as the capital of a number of ancient and pre-modern kingdoms. The town is named after a stone fortress to its north; Tashkurgan accordingly means "stone fortress" in the Turkic languages . The official English spelling (per the Chinese government) of the name is Taxkorgan , while Tashkorgan appears occasionally in literature. The historical Chinese name for
10593-568: Was arrested by the Chinese Communists and died in prison in 1952. The only organized resistance the PLA encountered was from Osman Batur's Kazakh militia and from Yulbars Khan 's White Russian and Hui troops, who served the Republic of China. Batur pledged his allegiance to the Kuomintang and was killed in 1951. Yulbars Khan battled PLA forces at the Battle of Yiwu and fled through Tibet by evading
10700-463: Was correct. The marriages between Muslim (Uyghur) women and Han Chinese men infuriated the Uyghur leader Isa Yusuf Alptekin . In Ürümqi (Uyghur) Muslim women who married Han Chinese men were assaulted by hordes of (Uyghur) Muslims on 11 July 1947, and the women were seized and kidnapped by the hordes. Old (Uyghur) Muslim men forcibly married these women. In response to the chaos a curfew was placed at 11:00 p.m. American telegrams reported that
10807-608: Was discouraged and repressed, and mosques, churches , and synagogues were closed. As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies, Central Asia , Tajikistan included, underwent a famine that claimed lives. In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan , and in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajikistan SSR, Таджикская ССР)
10914-537: Was dominated by people from the Khujand and Kulob regions. The war lasted until 1997. More than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution and increased poverty, seeking better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country. Emomali Rahmon came to power in
11021-524: Was made a separate constituent republic; the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR . Between 1927 and 1934, collectivisation of agriculture and an expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region. Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived
11128-505: Was part of Sogdia , a collection of city-states which was overrun by Scytho-Siberians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi (141 BC–87 BC) commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished. Sogdians played a role in facilitating trade and worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers. The Kushan Empire ,
11235-790: Was part of the Achaemenid Empire . Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC parts of Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the Hindu Kambojas tribe before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire . After the region's conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities of Khujand and Panjakent )
11342-628: Was previously home to cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age , including the city of Sarazm , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of various faiths and cultures including the Oxus civilization , Andronovo culture , Buddhism , Nestorian Christianity , Hinduism , Zoroastrianism , Manichaeism , and Islam . The area has been ruled by empires and dynasties including the Achaemenid Empire , Sasanian Empire , Hephthalite Empire , Samanid Empire , and Mongol Empire . After being ruled by
11449-570: Was sent in response by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions. As commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, Major General Han Youwen was sent by the Kuomintang military command to Beitashan with a company of troops to reinforce Ma Xizhen. They arrived approximately three months before the fighting broke out. At Pei-ta-shan, General Han was in command of all the Muslim cavalry defending against Soviet and Mongol forces. Han said to A. Doak Barnett , an American reporter, that he "believed
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