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135-462: The Texas Wends or Wends of Texas are a group of people descended from a congregation of 558 Sorbian / Wendish people under the leadership and pastoral care of John Kilian ( Sorbian languages : Jan Kilian , German : Johann Killian ) who emigrated from Lusatia (part of modern-day Germany ) to Texas in 1854. The term also refers to the other emigrations (and all descendants) occurring before and after this group. However, none came close to

270-557: A 10th-century source De Administrando Imperio , they lived "since the beginning" in the region called by them as Boiki which was a neighbor to Francia, and when two brothers succeeded their father, one of them migrated with half of the people to the Balkans during the rule of Heraclius in the first half of the 7th century. According to some scholars, the White Serbian Unknown Archon who led them to

405-517: A German tribe who spoke a Slavic language. Sorbian costume, culture, customs, and the language was said to be no indication of a non-German origin. The Reich declared that there were truly no "Sorbs" or "Lusatians", only Wendish-speaking Germans. As such, while the Sorbs were largely safe from the Reich's policies of ethnic cleansing, the cultivation of "Wendish" customs and traditions was to be encouraged in

540-748: A Sorbian party and in 1925 in Berlin, Skala started Kulturwille- the newspaper for the protection of national minorities in Germany. In 1920, the Sokol Movement was founded (youth movement and gymnastic organization). From 1933 the Nazi party started to repress the Sorbs. At that time the Nazis also dissolved the Sokol Movement and began to combat every sign of Sorbian culture. In 1937, the activities of

675-523: A closer proximity to Poles and Czechs than Germans. The researchers however question this proximity, as the German reference population was almost exclusively West-German, and the Polish and Czech reference population had many that were part of a German minority. In a 2016 paper, Sorbs cluster autosomally again with Poles (from Poznań ). The oldest known relic of Sorbian literature originated in about 1530 –

810-610: A concrete danger for the Sorbs if the AfD enters the governments of the federal states of Brandenburg and Saxony in the autumn elections. According to 2013 and 2015 studies, the most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Sorbs who speak Upper Sorbian in Lusatia (n=123) is R1a with 65%, mainly its R-M458 subclade (57%). It is followed in frequency by I1 (9.8%), R1b (9.8%), E1b1b (4.9%), I2 (4.1%), J (3.3%) and G (2.4%). Other haplogroups are less than 1%. A study from 2003 reported

945-575: A controlled manner and it was expected that the Slavic language would decline due to natural causes. Young Sorbs enlisted in the Wehrmacht and were sent to the front. The entangled lives of the Sorbs during World War II are exemplified by the life stories of Mina Witkojc , Měrćin Nowak-Njechorński   [ Wikidata ] and Jan Skala . Persecution of the Sorbs reached its climax under

1080-529: A dense network of dynastic and diplomatic relations between German and Slavic feudal lords, e.g. Wiprecht of Groitzsch (a German) rose to power through close links with the Bohemian (Czech) king and marriage to the king's daughter. The Kingdom of Bohemia eventually became a politically influential member of the Holy Roman Empire but was in a constant power-struggle with neighbouring Poland. In

1215-599: A derivation of Prague(-Korchak) culture . The Annales Regni Francorum state that in 806 Sorbian Duke Miliduch fought against the Franks and was killed. In 840, Sorbian Duke Czimislav was killed. From the 9th century was organized Sorbian March by the East Francia and from the 10th century the Saxon Eastern March ( Margravate of Meissen ) and March of Lusatia by the Holy Roman Empire . In 932,

1350-422: A diversity of regional costumes (mainly worn by elderly women) that feature white-knitting with black, cross-like embroidery, and a tradition of playing bagpipes . In several villages, residents uphold traditional festivities such as expelling of winter, Maik , Easter and Great Friday singing, and the celebration of dźěćetko (disguised child or young girl giving Christmas presents). There are 60 towns from

1485-657: A greater role in consulting parents of schoolchildren. The number of learners did not decrease again until after German reunification. Sorbs experienced greater representation in the German Democratic Republic than under any other German government. Domowina had status as a constituent member organization of the National Front , and a number of Sorbs were members of the Volkskammer and State Council of East Germany . Notable Sorbian figures of

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1620-593: A group meeting at the request of the Navy Department but also with representatives from both the Army and the Treasury Department (Coast Survey). During the summer of 1861, the board issued a series of reports recommending how best to maintain the blockade, taking into account the topography of the coast, the relative merits of the various southern ports, the opposition likely to be encountered, and

1755-425: A major fleet operation at Port Royal , South Carolina, resulted in the capture of a deep-water harbor midway between Savannah and Charleston. The Hatteras expedition had been planned as a raid; the plan called for it to be held only long enough to block up Hatteras Inlet. However, it was transformed into an incursion and led early in the next year to a full invasion, the so-called Burnside Expedition , which included

1890-508: A memorandum in March 2008 and called for "help and protection against the growing threat of their cultural extinction, since an ongoing conflict between the German government, Saxony and Brandenburg about the financial distribution of help blocks the financing of almost all Sorbian institutions". The memorandum also demands a reorganisation of competence by ceding responsibility from the Länder to

2025-535: A more vigorous prosecution of the war and likened it to the coils of an anaconda suffocating its victim. The snake image caught on, giving the proposal its popular name. In the early days of the Civil War, Scott's proposed strategy for the war against the South had two prominent features. First, all ports in the seceding states were to be rigorously blockaded. Secondly, a strong column of perhaps 80,000 men should use

2160-401: A part of united Germany and was divided between two parts; Prussia ( Silesia and Brandenburg ), and Saxony. In 1871 the industrialization of the region and German immigration began; official Germanization intensified. Persecution of the Sorbs under German rule became increasingly harsh throughout the 19th century. Slavs were labeled inferior to Germanic peoples, and in 1875, the use of Sorbian

2295-537: A possession of a harbor that would serve as a coaling station near the southern end of the blockading line, as otherwise, blockaders would spend too much of their time going to and from home port seeking replenishment. All suitable harbors south of the Chesapeake Bay, however, were held by seceded states. To establish the blockade, therefore, at least one of them would have to be taken by the Federal forces. Thus,

2430-476: A premiere celebration of Wendish culture, with attendants from all over the world gathering to share their stories, eat Wendish noodles and streusel coffee cake, participate in cross-cut saw and other traditional competitions, and keep alive the way of life brought from Lusatia . They continue to decorate eggs in their cultural fashion and their egg noodles are never far from the table. The original church bell, having been brought from Lusatia and since replaced in

2565-591: A provision on the Lusatian flag. Section 2 of the Constitution of Saxony contains a provision on the use of the coat of arms and traditional national colors of the Lusatian Sorbs. The laws on the rights of the Lusatian Sorbs of Brandenburg and Saxony contain provisions on the use of Lusatian national symbols (coat of arms and national colors). The national anthem of Lusatian Sorbs since the 20th century

2700-686: A renewal of the sense of Wendish culture since the 1970s, the Texas Wendish Heritage Society preserves the history and culture of this group with their museum located in Serbin. The 3000+ artifacts, documents, and original log buildings of Johann Killian and his congregation serve as the chief voice of this bygone era. A Wendish Fest has occurred annually every fourth Sunday in September since 1988 to celebrate Wendish culture, traditions, and background. The festival has grown to be

2835-416: A similar frequency of 63.4% of haplogroup R1a among Sorbian males (n=112). Other studies that covered aspects of Sorbian Y-DNA include Immel et al. 2006, Rodig et al. 2007, and Krawczak et al. 2008. Significant percentage of R1a (25.7-38.3%), but strongly diminished in value because of high R1b (33.5-21.7%), and low I2 (5.8-5.1%) are in whole Saxony and Germania Slavica area as well. A 2011 paper on

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2970-415: A similar law. Article 40 of the constitution of German Democratic Republic adopted on 7 October 1949 expressly provided for the protection of the language and culture of the Sorbs. In the times of the German Democratic Republic, Sorbian organizations were financially supported by the country, but at the same time the authorities encouraged Germanization of Sorbian youth as a means of incorporating them into

3105-522: A weekly magazine, the precursor of today’s Sorbian News. In 1845 in Bautzen the first festival of Sorbian songs took place. In 1875, Jakub Bart-Ćišinski , the poet and classicist of Upper Sorbian literature, and Karol Arnošt Muka created a movement of young Sorbians influencing Lusatian art, science and literature for the following 50 years. A similar movement in Lower Lusatia was organized around

3240-702: A wide and uninhabited forest range, one around Upper Spree and the rest between the Elbe and Saale. Some scholars consider that the contemporary Sorbs are descendants of the two largest Sorbian tribes, the Milceni (Upper) and Lusici (Lower), and these tribes' respective dialects have developed into separate languages. However, others emphasize differences between these two dialects and that their respective territories correspond to two different Slavic archeological cultures of Leipzig group ( Upper Sorbian language ) and Tornow group ceramics ( Lower Sorbian language ), both

3375-805: Is Lower Sorbian. The region is predominantly Protestant, again highly devastated by the brown coal mining industry. The biggest tourist attraction of the region and in the whole Lusatia are the marshlands, with many Spreewald /Błóta canals, picturesque broads of the Spree . Worn mainly by older but on holidays by young women, regional costumes are colourful, including a large headscarf called "lapa", rich in golden embroidering and differing from village to village. In some villages, following traditions are observed: Shrovetide, Maik , Easter bonfires, Roosters catching/hunting. In Jänschwalde (Sorbian: Janšojce) so-called Janšojski bog (disguised young girl) gives Christmas presents. Anaconda Plan The Anaconda Plan

3510-680: Is in accordance with the Frankish 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar according to which the Surbi lived in the Saale - Elbe valley, having settled in the Thuringian part of Francia since the second half of the 6th century or beginning of the 7th century and were vassals of the Merovingian dynasty . The Saale-Elbe line marked the approximate limit of Slavic westward migration. Under

3645-464: Is of Sorbian origin. The ethnonym "Sorbs" ( Serbja , Serby ) derives from the medieval ethnic groups called " Sorbs " ( Surbi , Sorabi ). The original ethnonym, Srbi , was retained by the Sorbs and Serbs in the Balkans . By the 6th century, Slavs occupied the area west of the Oder formerly inhabited by Germanic peoples . The Sorbs are first mentioned in the 6th or 7th century. In their languages,

3780-751: Is the song Rjana Łužica (Beautiful Lusatia). Previously, the songs “Still Sorbs Have Not Perished” (written by Handrij Zejler in 1840) and “Our Sorbs Rise from the Dust” (written by M. Domashka, performed until 1945) served as a hymn. There are three main regions of Lusatia that differ in language, religion, and customs. Catholic Lusatia encompasses 85 towns in the districts of Bautzen , Kamenz , and Hoyerswerda , where Upper Sorbian language, customs, and tradition are still thriving. In some of these places ( e.g. , Radibor or Radwor in Sorbian, Crostwitz or Chrósćicy, and Rosenthal or Róžant), Sorbs constitute

3915-715: The Bautzen townsmen's oath. In 1548 Mikołaj Jakubica – Lower Sorbian vicar, from the village called Lubanice, wrote the first unprinted translation of the New Testament into Lower Sorbian. In 1574 the first Sorbian book was printed: Albin Mollers ’ songbook. In 1688 Jurij Hawštyn Swětlik translated the Bible for Catholic Sorbs. From 1706 to 1709 the New Testament was printed in the Upper Sorbian translation

4050-668: The Domowina and have sustained relations with the residing Wends of Lusatia . Very little literature written in Wendish has been translated into German, much less into English. In 2018, a Texas university student translated a collection of seven Wendish poems from German into English. The poems all stressed Wendish identity, written originally in Wendish. In 2018, they had been translated into German by Kito Lorenc and published . The towns and surrounding areas of Serbin , Warda , and Giddings are still composed largely of descendants of

4185-437: The Domowina and its associated societies were re-established and a Sorbian theatre was created. Owing to the suppression of the church and forced collectivization, however, these efforts were severely affected and consequently over time the number of people speaking Sorbian languages decreased by half. The relationship between the Sorbs and the government of East Germany was not without occasional difficulties, mainly because of

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4320-480: The East Francia ( Sorbian March ) and Holy Roman Empire ( Saxon Eastern March , Margravate of Meissen , March of Lusatia ). From the High Middle Ages , they were ruled at various times by the closely related Poles and Czechs , as well as the more distant Germans and Hungarians. Due to a gradual and increasing assimilation between the 17th and 20th centuries, virtually all Sorbs also spoke German by

4455-855: The Red Army and the Polish Second Army crossed the river Queis (Kwisa). The defeat of Nazi Germany changed the Sorbs’ situation considerably. The regions in East Germany (the German Democratic Republic) faced heavy industrialisation and a large influx of expelled Germans . The East German authorities tried to counteract this development by creating a broad range of Sorbian institutions. The Sorbs were officially recognized as an ethnic minority, more than 100 Sorbian schools and several academic institutions were founded,

4590-602: The Union blockade , however, remains controversial. No one seriously contends that it alone would have won the war for the North. But while it is conceded not to have been sufficient, the question remains if it was necessary, i.e. whether the South would have endured had the blockade not sapped the strength of the Rebel armies beyond the tipping point. Those who deny the importance of the blockade advance two principal arguments. First, it

4725-594: The Union blockade of the Gulf and borders , the Wends smuggled cotton for sale on European Markets , evading federal troops and bandits and boosting the economy . Several Wendish men served honorably in 1st Battalion Infantry, Waul's Texas Legion , having been recruited by a Captain Robert Voigt, Company C. The unit was eventually captured and sent to detainment by federal troops in 1863 at Yazoo City . Among C Company

4860-713: The Western Gunboat Flotilla (soon thereafter to be transformed into the Mississippi River Squadron ) and the United States Ram Fleet , and the Mississippi was open down to Vicksburg. Thus that city became the only point on the river not in Federal hands. Again, the Army under Halleck did not grasp the opportunity that was provided. He failed to send even a small body of troops to aid the ships, and soon Farragut

4995-595: The 16th century the whole Sorbian-inhabited area, with the exception of Bohemian-ruled Lusatia, underwent Germanization . During the Thirty Years' War , in 1635, Lusatia became a fiefdom of Saxon electors , but it retained a considerable autonomy and largely its own legal system (see Lusatian League ). The Thirty Years' War and the plague of the 17th century caused terrible devastation in Lusatia. This led to further German colonization and Germanization. In 1667

5130-483: The 1950s and early 1960s, as many German families protested the state policy of mandatory instruction of the Sorbian language in schools located in bilingual areas. As a consequence of the tensions, which split the local SED, Sorbian language classes were no longer mandatory after 1964, and a temporary but sharp decline in the number of learners occurred immediately thereafter. The number of learners increased again after 1968, when new regulations were adopted giving Domowina

5265-590: The Atlantic seaboard: Wilmington , Charleston , and Savannah. Only the first two were consequential; a mere eight steam-powered blockade runners entered Georgia or northern Florida ports throughout the entire war. The blockade of Charleston merged into the campaign against the city waged by both the Army and the Navy, not completed until the last days of the war. (See Raising the Flag at Fort Sumter .) Rather early in

5400-573: The Balkans was most likely a son, brother or other relative of Dervan. Sorbian tribes, Sorbi/Surbi, are noted in the mid-9th-century work of the Bavarian Geographer . Having settled by the Elbe, Saale, Spree, and Neisse in the 6th and early 7th century, Sorbian tribes divided into two main groups, which have taken their names from the characteristics of the area where they had settled. The two groups were separated from each other by

5535-587: The Confederate position there occupied bluffs high enough to render them impregnable to the naval gunnery of the day. Following the loss of Island No. 10 shortly before Farragut took New Orleans, the Confederates had abandoned Memphis, Tennessee , leaving only a small rear guard to conduct a delaying operation. In early June, this was swept aside at the First Battle of Memphis by the gunboats of

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5670-715: The Domowina Institution and other organizations were banned as anti-national. Sorbian clergymen and teachers were forcedly deported from Lusatia; Nazi German authorities confiscated the Sorbian House, other buildings and crops. On May 10, 1945, in Crostwitz , after the Red Army 's invasion, the Domowina Institution renewed its activity. In 1948, the Landtag of Saxony passed an Act guaranteeing protection to Sorbian Lusatians; in 1949, Brandenburg resolved

5805-722: The Domowina, though, and did not wish to split from Germany. Claims asserted by the Lusatian National movement were postulates of joining Lusatia to Poland or Czechoslovakia. Between 1945 and 1947 they postulated about ten petitions to the United Nations , the United States, Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, France, Poland and Czechoslovakia, however, it did not bring any results. On April 30, 1946,

5940-544: The German king Henry I conquered Lusatia and Milsko . Gero , Margrave of the Saxon Eastern March, reconquered Lusatia the following year and, in 939, murdered 30 Sorbian princes during a feast. As a result, there were many Sorbian uprisings against German rule. A reconstructed castle, at Raddusch in Lower Lusatia, is the sole physical remnant from this early period. In 1002, the Sorbs came under

6075-631: The Lusatian National Committee also postulated a petition to the Polish Government, signed by Pawoł Cyž – the minister and an official Sorbian delegate in Poland. There was also a project of proclaiming a Lusatian Free State, whose Prime Minister was supposed to be a Polish archaeologist of Lusatian origin- Wojciech Kóčka. The most radical postulates in this area (" Na swobodu so ńečeka, swobodu so beŕe!") were expressed by

6210-408: The Lusatian youth organization- Narodny Partyzan Łužica. Similarly, in Czechoslovakia, where before the Potsdam Conference in Prague , 300,000 people demonstrated for the independence of Lusatia. The endeavours to separate Lusatia from Germany did not succeed because of various individual and geopolitical interests. The following statistics indicate the progression of cultural change among Sorbs: by

6345-404: The Mississippi River as a highway to thrust completely through the Confederacy. A spearhead, a relatively small amphibious force of army troops transported by boats and supported by gunboats, should advance rapidly, capturing the Confederate positions down the river in sequence. It would be followed by a more traditional army, marching behind to secure victories. The culminating battle would be for

6480-625: The Nazis, who attempted to completely assimilate and Germanize them. Their distinct identity and culture and Slavic origins were denied by referring to them as "Wendish-speaking Germans". Under Nazi rule, the Sorbian language and practice of Sorbian culture was banned, Sorbian and Slavic place-names were changed to German ones, Sorbian books and printing presses were destroyed, Sorbian organizations and newspapers were banned, Sorbian libraries and archives were closed, and Sorbian teachers and clerics were deported to German-speaking areas and replaced with German-speaking teachers and clerics. Leading figures in

6615-525: The President, shows that he considered it but not favorably. Firstly, the Kanawha was not suited for water transport so the march on Richmond would have to be overland and thus subject to breakdowns of men, horses, and equipment. More seriously, western Virginia (West Virginia had not yet parted from Virginia) was still very much pro-Union; according to Scott's estimate, its populace stood five out of seven opposed to secession. An invasion as proposed would alienate many of them and subject both enemies and friends to

6750-404: The Prince of Brandenburg , Frederick Wilhelm, ordered the immediate destruction of all Sorbian printed materials and banned saying masses in this language. At the same time the Evangelical Church supported printing Sorbian religious literature as a means of fighting the Counterreformation . With the formation of the Polish-Saxon union in 1697, Polish-Sorbian contacts resumed, and Poles influenced

6885-412: The Slavs in the German and Bohemian lands as early as the 9th century", and has theorized that Sorbs may have been contributors to the Ashkenazic Jewish population in Europe from the same period. A Shrove Tuesday festival Zapust is the most popular tradition of the Sorbs, deeply linked to the working life of the community. Traditionally, festivities would last one week ahead of the spring sowing of

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7020-446: The Sorbian community were forcibly isolated from their community or simply arrested. The Sorbian national anthem and flag were banned. The specific Wendenabteilung was established to monitor the assimilation of the Sorbs. Towards the end of World War II, the Nazis considered the deportation of the entire Sorbian population to the mining districts of Alsace-Lorraine . The first Lusatian cities were captured in April 1945, when

7155-448: The Sorbs can be traced to the 6th century or earlier when Vibius Sequester recorded Cervetiis living on the other part of the river Elbe which divided them from the Suevi ( Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cerveciis dividiit ). According to Lubor Niederle , the Serbian district was located somewhere between Magdeburg and Lusatia , and was later mentioned by the Ottonians as Ciervisti , Zerbisti , and Kirvisti . The information

7290-410: The Sorbs of the Kamenz area – predominantly settled on the expansive former site of the Saint Marienstern Monastery in Panschwitz-Kuckau – veered from the norm, with a Catholic population of 88.4%. Otherwise, the proportion of Catholics remained under 1% throughout the region of Lower Lusatia. Due to the rapid decline in language and cultural identity amongst the Protestant Sorbs – particularly during

7425-437: The Sorbs' autosomal DNA reported that the Upper Sorbian speakers (n=289) showed the greatest autosomal genetic similarity to Poles , followed by Czechs and Slovaks , consistent with the linguistic proximity of Sorbian to other West Slavic languages. In another genome-wide paper from the same year on Upper Sorbs (n=977), which indicated their genetic isolation "which cannot be explained by over-sampling of relatives" and

7560-551: The Sorbs' national and cultural activities (see Relationship with Poland below). With the Age of Enlightenment , the Sorbian national revival began and resistance to Germanization emerged. In 1706 the Sorbian Seminary, the main centre for the education of Sorbian Catholic priests, was founded in Prague . Sorbian preaching societies were founded by Evangelical students in Leipzig and Wittenberg in 1716 and 1749, respectively. The Congress of Vienna , in 1815, divided Lusatia between Prussia and Saxony . More and more bans on

7695-413: The St. Paul Lutheran Church's bell tower, now rests at Concordia University Texas in Austin . That institution was founded by Texas Wends and is affiliated with the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod . Sorbs In the Early Middle Ages , the Sorbs formed their own principality, which later shortly became part of the early West Slavic Samo's Empire and Great Moravia , as were ultimately conquered by

7830-399: The Wendish preaching and teaching, but with them ended the last of major Wendish language exposure to the small colony. The Wendish valued strong work ethic and having emigrated seeking liberty, did not feel it necessary to participate in slave ownership . Many Wendish homesteads continued to grow and develop profitable cotton crop during this time. As a result of high premiums on cotton from

7965-439: The Wends did not have enough money to continue the journey inland other than to travel on foot, carrying what they could. Along the way many stopped short of the congregation's planned destination in other German communities. Ultimately arriving in present-day Lee County , they founded the Low Pin Oak Settlement (now Serbin, Texas ). Through their first winter they survived in little more than dug-outs and meager shelters. Through

8100-405: The Wends of Texas was part of this movement, its members distinguished in their specific ethnic identity as Wends, i.e. a Slavic minority living within a predominantly German environment. Resisting the merger of Lutheranism and Calvinism being forced by the national church, this group, comprising members of many congregations and villages, met at Dauban on March 23, 1854, to make decisions on what

8235-458: The West, Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck , the Mississippi became a somewhat neglected theater for operations in the West. Halleck, with McClellan's approval, believed in turning the enemy's Mississippi River strongholds rather than attacking them directly, so he moved away from the river. As he saw it, the Tennessee rather than the Mississippi was the "great strategic line of the Western campaign." The Navy Department, however, remained committed to

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8370-463: The ability to carry cargo. The more conventional cargo vessels, and their spacious holds, went elsewhere. As a result, Southern exports of cotton fell by 95% from pre-war levels, devaluing its currency, and wrecking its economy. Additionally, the blockade disrupted coastal trade, overloading the marginal Southern railroads and preventing the importation of salt, necessary for preserving food and tanning leather. Unable to sell goods (particularly cotton) on

8505-432: The approaching attack on the Mississippi River forts that shielded New Orleans. Early in 1862, the Gulf Blockading Squadron was reconfigured into two separate entities, the East Gulf Blockading Squadron (EGBS) commanded by Flag-Officer James L. Lardner and the West Gulf Blockading Squadron (WGBS) led by Flag-Officer David G. Farragut . After New Orleans fell to the Union fleet under Farragut on April 29, 1862, Mobile

8640-479: The area from Hoyerswerda to Schleife , a dialect of Sorbian which combines characteristic features of both Upper and Lower Sorbian is spoken. The region is predominantly Protestant, highly devastated by the brown coal mining industry, sparsely populated, and to a great extent germanicized. Most speakers of Sorbian are over 60 years old. The region distinguishes itself through many examples of Slavic wooden architecture monuments including churches and regular houses,

8775-454: The area of Cottbus belonging to this region, where most of the older people over 60 but few young people and children can speak the Lower Sorbian language ; the local variant often incorporates many words taken from the German language, and in conversations with the younger generation, German is generally preferred. Some primary schools in the region teach bilingually, and in Cottbus there is an important Gymnasium whose main medium of instruction

8910-402: The battery failed, the ships remained active in the ensuing siege that eventually resulted in its capture. Then, the Union was able to mount its guns at the mouth of the harbor, and although the city continued to resist, it was no longer the preferred terminus for blockade runners. While all this was going on, the local defenders were not passive. Extensive efforts to break the blockade included

9045-437: The battle; running his fleet past the forts that defended the city from the south on the night of April 24, 1862, he forced the city to surrender. After repairing his ships from the damage they had suffered while passing the forts, he sent them up the river, where they successively sought and obtained the surrender of Baton Rouge and Natchez . The string of easy conquests came to an end at Vicksburg, Mississippi , however, as

9180-447: The blockade was immediately transformed from a purely open-water operation to one of at least limited occupation of enemy territory. Although the board recommended that Fernandina, Florida , be taken as the southern anchor of the blockade, two other positions were captured before Fernandina. A pair of minor forts on the Outer Banks of North Carolina near Cape Hatteras were taken by Union forces on August 28–29, 1861, and on November 7

9315-417: The blockade was not properly a strategy although it is often referred to as such by historians. It did not estimate the forces that would be needed to guard the at least 3,000 miles (5,000 km) of coastline in the seceded states. It did not consider an allocation of resources. It did not set out a timeline or even name points of particular concern. Much of that was later done by the Blockade Strategy Board ,

9450-419: The blockade. The supply problems they did face were most often caused by the poor condition of Confederate railroads . However much of the deterioration of the Southern railroads was caused by overloading due to the blockade disrupting normal coastal sea traffic and control of inland waterways by the Union Navy. Those who believe that the blockade was decisive argue that the Southern forces were strangled at

9585-413: The campaign to capture the Mississippi River and thereby lop off the Trans-Mississippi is acknowledged. Virtually all present-day historians agree that the Union's Western campaign was at least as significant as that in the East. To the extent that fighting in the West before mid-1863 can be regarded as preparing for or culminating in the capture of Vicksburg , the Anaconda has been validated. The worth of

9720-531: The capture of Roanoke Island and established the Union Army permanently in eastern North Carolina. Port Royal in Union hands was soon used as a base to make the blockade of Savannah almost complete, but Charleston was not so easily sealed off. Use of its harbor by blockade runners was curtailed, but to close it completely required some of the bitterest and most persistent ground action of the war. When Fernandina

9855-717: The centers of blockade-running activity in Bermuda and Nassau, but ships trying to reach them from the Atlantic Ocean would have to run past the Florida Keys, which remained in Federal control throughout the war and served as the base for the Gulf (later, East Gulf) Blockading Squadron . The same decision by the Confederate War Department led to the abandonment of most of the Atlantic coast except for

9990-423: The coming year, they finished building their first church and school, and continued to preserve their culture. Kilian persevered, preaching in both Sorbian and German as more German migrants moved closer. Eventually he added English to the list of his preaching languages. The use of German had made such inroads into the community that gravestones for Kilian and his family were carved in German. His sons continued

10125-463: The commander there, knew that further resistance was pointless. On July 9, 1863, he surrendered the post and its garrison to the Federal Army of the Gulf and its commander, Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks . Henceforth, in the phrase of Abraham Lincoln , "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea." The Anaconda Plan as proposed by Scott relied on the blockade, as he stated it, "to envelop

10260-567: The early 20th century. In the newly created German nation state of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, policies were implemented in an effort to Germanize the Sorbs. These policies reached their climax under the Nazi regime, who denied the existence of the Sorbs as a distinct Slavic people by referring to them as "Sorbian-speaking Germans". The community is divided religiously between Roman Catholicism (the majority) and Lutheranism . The former Minister President of Saxony Stanislaw Tillich

10395-464: The end of the 19th century, about 150,000 people spoke Sorbian languages. By 1920, almost all Sorbs had mastered Sorbian and German to the same degree. Nowadays, the number of people using Sorbian languages has been estimated to be no more than 40,000. The Israeli Slavic linguist Paul Wexler has argued that the Yiddish language structure provides "compelling evidence of an intimate Jewish contact with

10530-640: The end. They point out that the collapse of the Army of Northern Virginia , which in 1865 was virtually all that remained of the Confederacy, followed soon after the loss of Wilmington to the Union. The timing, they contend, was not merely coincidental. Furthermore, the defeat of its armies was not the only way that the South lost. The blockade was not only to capture the ships that attempted to evade it but also to discourage others. The blockade runners may have been numerous, but they were built for speed rather than

10665-513: The federal government and an expanded legal status. The call has been issued to all governments and heads of state of the European Union . Dawid Statnik, president of Domowina, the umbrella association of Sorbs in Germany, said in an interview with Tagesspiegel that he considers it dangerous that the AFD defines the issue of German citizens through an ethnic aspect. He believes that there is

10800-400: The federal states has not been taken into consideration. Upper Lusatia still belongs to Saxony and Lower Lusatia to Brandenburg. Liquidations of Sorbian schools, even in areas mostly populated by Sorbs, still happen, under the pretext of financial difficulties or demolition of whole villages to create lignite quarries. Faced with growing threat of cultural extinction, the Domowina issued

10935-496: The field commanders so the war was a series of independent campaigns, each of which was conducted according to the whims of whatever general happened to be in charge. According to her view, the Anaconda is a later conceptual imposition on events for which order did not exist at the time that they took place. For the historians who contend that a rational plan existed, the debate, like the plan itself, has two parts. The importance of

11070-494: The fields and would feature traditional dress, parade and dancing. Egg decorating ( pisanici ) is a Slavic Easter tradition maintained by Sorbs since the 17th century. Most current speakers of Upper-Sorbian are part of the Catholic denomination. Originally, the majority of Sorbs were Lutheran Protestants, and this was still the case going into the 20th Century (with a Protestant population of 86.9% recorded in 1900). Only

11205-428: The first prohibitions on using Sorbian before courts and in administrative affairs in the cities of Altenburg , Zwickau and Leipzig appeared. Speaking Sorbian in family and business contexts was, however, not banned, as it did not involve the functioning of the administration. Also the village communities and the village administration usually kept operating in Sorbian. From 1376 to 1469 and from 1490 to 1635 Lusatia

11340-497: The following centuries, at various times, parts of Lusatia passed to Piast -ruled fragmented Poland. In the German-ruled parts, Sorbs were ousted from guilds , the Sorbian language was banned and German colonisation and Germanisation policies were enacted. From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture in Lusatia developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. This can still be seen today from

11475-457: The forts below New Orleans . When they fell, the river would be in US hands from its source to its mouth, and the rebellion would be cut in two. The Anaconda had a logical development, both in its origin and the way it played out in the experience of battle. The blockade had already been proclaimed by Lincoln. On April 19, 1861, a week after the bombardment of Fort Sumter that marked the outbreak of

11610-549: The high levels of religious observance and resistance to the nationalisation of agriculture. During the compulsory collectivization campaign, a great many unprecedented incidents were reported. Thus, throughout the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany , violent clashes with the police were reported in Lusatia. A small uprising took place in three upper communes of Błot. There were also tensions between German and Sorbian parents in

11745-498: The idea of opening the Mississippi. In the person of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Vasa Fox , it decided early on the capture of New Orleans by a naval expedition from the Gulf of Mexico , after which all other towns bordering the river would fall rather than face bombardment. The task of taking New Orleans was entrusted to Captain (later Admiral) David Glasgow Farragut , who followed his own plans for

11880-503: The insurgent States and bring them to terms with less bloodshed than by any other plan." Insofar as he foresaw direct combat, it was to be more or less confined to the central thrust down the Mississippi River. Almost surely he did not anticipate the level of violence that it provoked. For that matter, the blockade itself had to be modified by events, provoking much of the bloodshed that he hoped to avoid. Scott's proposal for

12015-436: The insurrection is seen in the endorsement. After giving the plan more thought he submitted his proposal in a letter to McClellan on May 3, 1861. A second letter, dated May 21, was his final plan outline. Scott was not able to impose his strategic vision on the government. Aged and infirm, he had to retire before the end of the year. He was replaced as General-in-Chief by McClellan. Under McClellan and his eventual successor in

12150-477: The leadership of dux (duke) Dervan ("Dervanus dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum"), they joined the Slavic tribal union of Samo , after Samo's decisive victory against Frankish King Dagobert I in 631. Afterwards, these Slavic tribes continuously raided Thuringia . The fate of the tribes after Samo's death and dissolution of the union in 658 is undetermined, but it is considered that they subsequently returned to Frankish vassalage. According to

12285-524: The major ports applied to the Gulf as well, with the result that only Mobile, New Orleans, and Galveston were defended. ( Brownsville, Texas / Matamoros, Tamaulipas , Mexico, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, is a special case that will not be treated here because of its international implications. ) Galveston was captured by Federal forces on October 4, 1862, but was retaken by the Rebels on New Year's Day of

12420-470: The majority of the population, and children grow up speaking Sorbian. On Sundays, during holidays, and at weddings, people wear regional costumes, rich in decoration and embroidery, encrusted with pearls. Some of the customs and traditions observed include Bird Wedding (25 January), Easter Cavalcade of Riders, Witch Burning (30 April), Maik, singing on St. Martin's Day (Nicolay), and the celebrations of Saint Barbara ’s Day and Saint Nicholas ’s Day. In

12555-538: The middle of the 20th century, the revival of the Central European nations included some Sorbs, who became strong enough to attempt twice to regain their independence. After World War II , the Lusatian National Committee in Prague claimed the right to self-government and separation from Germany and the creation of a Lusatian Free State or attachment to Czechoslovakia . The majority of the Sorbs were organized in

12690-562: The most prominent Lower Lusatian poets Mato Kósyk (Mato Kosyk) and Bogumił Šwjela . In 1904, mainly thanks to the Sorbs’ contribution, the most important Sorbian cultural centre (the Sorbian House ) was built in Bautzen . In 1912, the social and cultural organization of Lusatian Sorbs was created, the Domowina Institution - the union of Sorbian organizations. In 1919 it had 180,000 members. In 1920, Jan Skala set up

12825-400: The names of local villages which geographically form a patchwork of typical German (ending on -dorf, -thal etc.) and typical Slavic origin (ending on -witz, -ow etc.), indicating the language originally spoken by its inhabitants, although some of the present German names may be of later origin from the time of planned name changes to erase Slavic origin, especially in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1327

12960-613: The national service, the militias of Indiana and Illinois were added to his command. From this power base, he felt enabled on April 27, 1861, to write a letter to General Winfield Scott outlining his strategy. He proposed an immediate march on Richmond, by now the capital of the Confederacy, directed up the Kanawha River . Alternatively, if Kentucky were to leave the Union, a march directly across that state should take Nashville , and then, he would "act on circumstances." Scott's endorsement of McClellan's letter, which he submitted to

13095-489: The nature of the ships that would be used by both sides. The board recommendations concerning the Gulf Coast were rather rudimentary and largely ignored, but the blockade on the Atlantic coast followed their plan reasonably closely. All parties recognized from the start that the blockading ships would have to be powered by steam. The limited endurance of steamships then implied that one of the first requirements would be

13230-562: The next year. It remained accessible to blockade runners for the rest of the war but, like all of the Trans-Mississippi , was rendered worthless to the Rebellion when the loss of Vicksburg completed Federal control of the Mississippi River. The Blockade Strategy Board had recommended that Ship Island, which lies in the Gulf between Mobile and New Orleans, be taken and used as a base for the (West) Gulf Blockading Squadron. This

13365-876: The organization. Additionally, there was a seat reserved for a Sorbian representative in the Central Council of the Free German Youth , the mass organization for young people in East Germany, and magazines for both the FDJ and the Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation were published in the Sorbian language on a regular basis under the titles Chorhoj Měra and Plomjo , respectively. As of 1989, there were nine schools with exclusively Sorbian language instruction, eighty-five schools that offered Sorbian-language instruction, ten Sorbian-language periodicals, and one daily newspaper. After

13500-537: The original Lusatian pioneers; though without many Wendish speaking pastors, the culture largely exists today in the Texas Wendish Heritage Museum, which continues to publish a newsletter, hosts the annual Wendish Festival, organizes trips for Wends to visit the Domowina , and is open throughout the year with special events, in Serbin , celebrating the traditions and history of the Wends. With

13635-460: The other Slavs call them the "Lusatian Serbs", and the Sorbs call the Serbs "the south Sorbs". The name "Lusatia" was originally applied only to Lower Lusatia. It is generally considered that their ethnonym *Sŕbъ (plur. *Sŕby ) originates from Proto-Slavic with an appellative meaning of a "family kinship" and "alliance", however others argue a derivation from Iranian-Sarmatian . The name of

13770-556: The period include Domowina Chairmen Jurij Grós and Kurt Krjeńc , State Council member Maria Schneider , and writer and three-time recipient of the National Prize of the German Democratic Republic Jurij Brězan . In 1973, Domowina reported that 2,130 municipal councillors, 119 burgomasters, and more than 3,500 members of commissions and local bodies in East Germany were ethnic Sorbs registered with

13905-501: The ravages of war. The same argument could be applied to Kentucky. Perhaps most damagingly, the war as proposed would subjugate the Confederacy piecemeal, with by necessity the border states bearing most of the burden, "instead of enveloping them all (nearly) at once by a cordon of ports on the Mississippi to its mouth from its junction with the Ohio , and by blockading ships on the seaboard." The germ of Scott's Anaconda Plan for suppressing

14040-414: The reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990, Lusatians made efforts to create an autonomous administrative unit; however, Helmut Kohl ’s government did not agree to it. After 1989, the Sorbian movement revived, however, it still encounters many obstacles. Although Germany supports national minorities, Sorbs claim that their aspirations are not sufficiently fulfilled. The desire to unite Lusatia in one of

14175-556: The rule of their Slavic relatives, the Poles, when Bolesław I of Poland took over Lusatia. Following the subsequent German–Polish War of 1003–1018 , the Peace of Bautzen confirmed Lusatia as part of Poland; but, it returned to German rule in 1031. In the 1070s, southern Lusatia, passed into the hands of the Sorbs' other Slavic relatives, the Czechs, within their Duchy of Bohemia . There was

14310-561: The ship quarantined and the disease complete its cycle. Continuing on, they landed in Galveston, Texas , after passing the health inspection. Finding the largest city of Texas (at that time) beset by yellow fever , they hurriedly continued on to Houston (then about half the size of Galveston). By the time they had left Galveston, a total of 73 had died from various ailments, 55 of which died from cholera . Upon arrival in Houston, many of

14445-468: The short period of time, there was the first printed Sorbian newspaper. In 1767 Jurij Mjeń publishes the first secular Sorbian book. Between 1841 and 1843, Jan Arnošt Smoler and Leopold Haupt (a.k.a. J. L. Haupt and J. E. Schmaler) published two-volume collection of Wendish folk-songs in Upper and Lower Lusatia. From 1842, the first Sorbian publishing companies started to appear: the poet Handrij Zejler set up

14580-471: The size of the defending army increased in step with the advancing rank of its commander. The campaign for Vicksburg eventually settled into a siege, which terminated on July 4, 1863, with Pemberton's surrender of all the forces under his command. At that time, his army numbered approximately 29,500 men. When word of the loss of Vicksburg reached the garrison at Port Hudson, Maj. Gen. Franklin Gardner ,

14715-917: The size or importance of the Wendish culture in Texas. In 1817, King Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the Evangelical Church of the Prussian Union . The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked a great deal of controversy. Many Lutherans, termed Old Lutherans , chose to leave the established churches and form independent church bodies. Many left for America and Australia. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism. The group which eventually became

14850-645: The south. This 130-mile (210 km) stretch – measured along roads, somewhat longer on the river – including the confluence of the Red River with the Mississippi, became the last contact between the eastern Confederacy and the Trans-Mississippi . No doubt of its importance, the government of Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond strengthened both positions. Command at Vicksburg in particular passed from Brig. Gen. Martin L. Smith to Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn to Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton ;

14985-450: The system of "building Socialism ". Sorbian language and culture could only be publicly presented as long as they promoted socialist ideology. For over 1000 years, the Sorbs were able to maintain and even develop their national culture, despite escalating Germanization and Polonization , mainly due to the high level of religious observance, cultivation of their tradition and strong families (Sorbian families still often have five children). In

15120-587: The use of Sorbian languages appeared from then until 1835 in Prussia and Saxony; emigration of the Sorbs, mainly to the town of Serbin in Texas and to Australia, increased. In 1848, 5000 Sorbs signed a petition to the Saxon Government, in which they demanded equality for the Sorbian language with the German one in churches, courts, schools and Government departments. From 1871 the whole of Lusatia became

15255-412: The use of torpedoes (mines) and armored ships to sink or otherwise render inoperative the Federal vessels. Imaginative methods to achieve the same result in the development and deployment of submarines and torpedo boats . By contrast, the blockade of Wilmington was fairly conventional and is the focus of most debate concerning the efficacy of the blockade. After the middle of July 1863, when Charleston

15390-472: The war, he announced that the ports of all the seceded states, from South Carolina to Texas, would be blockaded; later, when Virginia and North Carolina also seceded, their coastlines were added. The executive order was not rescinded until the end of the war and so the blockade existed independently of Scott's plan. In the early days of the secession movement, the status of the border states Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, all of which allowed slavery,

15525-464: The war, the Federal Navy tried to block the harbor entrance by sinking ballast-laden hulks in the channels, but this proved ineffective or worse. Later, ships used in the blockade were used for the abortive assault on Fort Sumter on April 7, 1863. They also provided artillery support for the infantry attacks on Battery Wagner on July 11 and July 18, 1863. After both of these attempts to take

15660-599: The world market, the Confederate government was already strained financially as early as 1862. As its economy steadily degenerated, it suffered from a general loss of confidence on the part of its citizens. However, the blockade was less successful in preventing arms and money from being smuggled into Southern ports by blockade runners consisting of lightweight shallow draft steamships built in and operating from British shipyards, mostly in Liverpool and Glasgow . Historians estimated that 2,500–2,800 attempts were made to run

15795-487: The world. During this time, Concordia University Texas began studying and documenting the Texas Wends and their journey, leading to the development of the Texas Wendish Heritage Museum near the original St. Paul Church, Cemetery, and Picnic Ground. This study began to bring the Wends back together, represented by a Wendish Festival started in 1988 and is still continuing. In the 1990s, the Wends began organizing trips to

15930-628: The years of the GDR – the denominational make-up of the Sorbian-speaking population of the region has now been reversed. The flag of the Lusatian Sorbs is a cloth of blue, red and white horizontal stripes. First used as a national symbol in 1842, the flag was fully recognized among Sorbs following the proclamation of pan-Slavic colors at the Prague Slavic Congress of 1848 . Section 25 of the Constitution of Brandenburg contains

16065-596: Was a Wend, Johann Kieschnik, who, while in custody, was immediately sought out by his captors for his services as a shoemaker. Several Wendish men became seriously ill, and died in federal captivity. Expanding land and economic opportunities enticed many to start new Wendish communities and churches throughout Texas and gradually throughout the United States . This intensified following the Second World War , with many Wendish families moving to cities across

16200-802: Was a strategy outlined by the Union Army for suppressing the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War . Proposed by Union General-in-Chief Winfield Scott , the plan emphasized a Union blockade of the Southern ports and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two. Because the blockade would be rather passive, it was widely derided by a vociferous faction of Union generals who wanted

16335-500: Was banned in German schools. As a result, almost the entire Sorbian population was bilingual by the end of the 19th century. During World War I , one of the most venerated Serbian generals was Pavle Jurišić Šturm (Paul Sturm) , a Sorb from Görlitz , Province of Silesia . Although the Weimar Republic guaranteed constitutional minority rights, it did not practice them. Under Nazi Germany , Sorbians were described as

16470-548: Was done by Michał Frencel and in Lower Sorbian by Jan Bogumił Fabricius (1681–1741). Jan Bjedrich Fryco (a.k.a. Johann Friedrich Fritze) (1747–1819), translated the Old Testament for the first time into Lower Sorbian, published in 1790. Other Sorbian Bible translators include Jakub Buk (1825–1895), Michał Hórnik (Michael Hornig) (1833–1894), Jurij Łušćanski (a.k.a. Georg Wuschanski) (1839–1905). In 1809 for

16605-416: Was easily done, as on September 16, 1861, it was abandoned by its Rebel defenders, who feared that they might be cut off from the mainland. Their fears were justified; the next day, USS  Massachusetts arrived and offloaded Federal troops to take possession. Almost immediately, however, the island was transformed from a base and coaling station to a more important function; it became the staging area for

16740-574: Was forced by falling water levels to withdraw his deep-draft vessels to the vicinity of New Orleans. The Army did not attempt to take Vicksburg until November, and then the Army was under the leadership of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant , after Halleck had been called to Washington to replace McClellan as General-in-Chief. By the time Grant became commander in the West, the Confederate Army had been able to fortify Vicksburg and Port Hudson to

16875-608: Was fouled as two smaller ships awaited them. After negotiating and waiting for news to come back, their would-be ship line transported them to their requested ship among the White Star Line 's line of packet ships, the Ben Nevis in Liverpool , England. While in Liverpool, the group was exposed to the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak . After setting sail, they were forced to drop anchor at Queenstown , Ireland, to have

17010-546: Was largely sealed off, most of the trade between the Confederacy and northern Europe was conducted through Wilmington. The port retained its primacy until near the end of the Rebellion, when Fort Fisher , at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, was captured by Union forces in January 1865. The blockade of Confederate ports on the Gulf of Mexico was less important than that on the Atlantic. Not only were they farther from

17145-417: Was never very effective. Throughout the war, more than three-quarters of all attempts to evade the blockade were successful. The one quarter that did not get through can be written off as operational losses. That was because the blockade runners were small and built for speed, rather than capacity. Second and perhaps more important, the Southern armies were not hamstrung for lack of material, at least owing to

17280-537: Was no longer useful as a port. In July 1862, U.S. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles , wrote a letter to the commanders of both Gulf blockading squadrons that they would need to start recruiting freed blacks to keep up with labor demands. Although a century and a half has elapsed since the end of the Civil War, the importance of the Anaconda Plan remains to some extent a matter of debate. The war

17415-417: Was not in session to authorize presidential initiatives to suppress the rebellion, the burden of raising troops for the war fell on the loyal state governments. Ohio was particularly active in doing so and early acquired the services of George B. McClellan , who was to serve as the commander of its militia, with the rank of Major General of Volunteers. In a few weeks, as the state militias were incorporated into

17550-467: Was not the relatively bloodless affair that General Scott promised in his original proposal. Most historians regard this as merely a modification of the basic strategy in the course of events. At least one historian, however, denies that there ever was anything like a coherent strategy for subduing the South. Rowena Reed contends that the central government in Washington was unable to impose its will on

17685-527: Was part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown under the rule of the houses of Luxembourg , Jagiellon and Habsburg and other kings, whereas from 1469 to 1490 it was ruled by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. Under Bohemian (Czech) rule, Sorbs were allowed to return to cities, offices and crafts, Germanisation significantly reduced and the Sorbian language could be used in public. From the beginning of

17820-609: Was seized in early March 1862, the war was almost a year old, and some important changes had taken place. Following the Confederate defeats at Forts Henry and Donelson in Tennessee and Roanoke Island in North Carolina, the War Department in Richmond decided to concentrate its armies in vital interior areas, removing them from much of the coast. Only a few major ports would be defended. Only three of these were on

17955-422: Was the only serious problem for the blockade. It remained so, much like Wilmington, until late in the war. In August 1864, Farragut got permission from the Navy Department and troops from the War Department to seize the forts at the entrance to Mobile Bay. Following his famous "Damn the torpedoes" run past the forts, they fell and were occupied by Federal soldiers. Mobile itself remained in Confederate control, but it

18090-449: Was to be done. It was decided to meet again in May to call a pastor. May 25, 1854, saw the call of John Kilian as pastor of the newly formed congregation and plans began to form for the emigration to Texas. Converging at Hamburg , they traveled to Hull , England, where they were expecting to begin their voyage across the sea. Upon arrival they found their intention to travel on one large ship

18225-431: Was unclear. All except Delaware had strong pro-Southern interests. Missouri was torn by internal conflict that mimicked in miniature the larger war that was convulsing the nation, Maryland was kept in the Union by jailing many of the opposition faction, and Kentucky tried to keep the peace by proclaiming its neutrality by aiding neither the North nor the South if both would agree to leave the state alone. Because Congress

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