131-690: The Consultation , also known as the Texian Government , served as the provisional government of Mexican Texas from October 1835 to March 1836 during the Texas Revolution . Tensions rose in Texas during early 1835 as throughout Mexico federalists began to oppose the increasingly centralist policies of the government. In the summer, Texians elected delegates to a political convention to be held in Gonzales in mid-October. Weeks before
262-455: A census of Austin's Colony showed 1,347 Anglo-Americans and 443 people of African descent, including a very small number of free African Americans. Two years later the legislature of Coahuila y Tejas outlawed the introduction of additional slaves into the state and granted freedom at birth to all children born to a slave. The new laws also stated that any slave brought into Texas should be freed within six months. In 1829, slavery
393-461: A chief executive and a General Council who would share powers. Under the assumption that these two branches would have full cooperation, there was no system of checks and balances. Believing there was no time to wait for general elections, the Consultation determined that the governor and lieutenant governor would be chosen by the delegates themselves, a practice somewhat common among states in
524-545: A federalist to a centralist state appeared to be the catalyst for the Anglo-Texan colonists to revolt. The first violent incident occurred on June 26, 1832, at the Battle of Velasco . On March 2, 1836, Texians declared their independence from Mexico. The Texas Revolution ended on April 21, 1836, when Santa Anna was taken prisoner by Texians following the Battle of San Jacinto . Although Texas declared its independence as
655-550: A meeting in San Felipe to build support for dismantling the provisional government. They were concerned that the council was moving too seriously towards independence instead of an adherence to the Constitution of 1824. Yet the council had not gone far enough for some. Disillusionment with the interim government and an increased militancy among troops, whose ranks were now primarily composed of newly arrived volunteers from
786-481: A military trial on charges of attempted insurrection, with the goal being separation from Mexico. Conviction on this charge would certainly lead to Travis's execution. The settlers were outraged that the arrest did not require a warrant, a statement of charges, or trial by jury. Most were unfamiliar with Mexican law and assumed that the United States Bill of Rights still applied to them. Settlers attacked
917-576: A new presidio. Fort Tenoxtitlán was established in 1830 on the west bank of the Brazos River, 100 miles (161 km) above San Felipe. Shortly after the fort was completed, 50 immigrants from Tennessee arrived in the area under empresario Sterling C. Robertson . The settlers had arrived illegally, as Robertson's contract had been invalidated by Guerrero's 1830 laws. The garrison commander chose not to expel them, instead sending to Mexico for advice. Three months later he received instructions to expel
1048-552: A resolution to define why Texians were fighting. They expressed allegiance to the deposed Constitution of 1824 and maintained their right to form the General Council. In the next weeks, the council authorized the creation of a new regular army to be commanded by Sam Houston . As Houston worked to establish an army independent from the existing volunteer army, the council repeatedly interfered in military matters. After authorizing an expedition to take Matamoros, Mexico ,
1179-426: A return to federalism, or the status quo. Although some leaders worried that Mexican officials would see this type of gathering as a step toward revolution, the ayuntamientos of both Columbia and San Felipe quickly endorsed the suggestion. They hoped that a political convention would make it quite clear that the majority of Texians did not support the radicals. After the leaders of Columbia argued forcefully for
1310-473: A separate state, not an independent nation. He discussed the grievances against the Texas justice system and justified the conventions of 1832 and 1833 as "'an exercise of the right to petition that belongs to every free people'". He was finally released from prison and had returned to Texas, by August. He changed his mind in prison about the future of Texas and issued a call to arms, announcing that Texas should be "'forever free of any Mexican control'". After
1441-641: A staunch member of the War Party, asked the fellow delegates to refrain from declaring independence. Such a declaration would likely cause many of the people who supported the Constitution of 1824 in other parts of Mexico to refrain from supporting the Texians. The Consultation compromised. On November 7, they released a resolution declaring that "The people of Texas, availing themselves of their natural rights, solemnly declare that they have taken up arms in defense of their rights and liberties which were threatened by
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#17327972561821572-475: A territory public land would be controlled by the national government, Seguin chose not to request territorial status. The Congress did allow Texas the option of forming its own state "'as soon as it feels capable of doing so.'" The new state, the poorest in the Mexican federation, covered the boundaries of Spanish Texas but did not include the area around El Paso , which belonged to the state of Chihuahua and
1703-453: A tie. The Consultation's main purpose was to decide the overall goals of the revolution. Members of the War Party advocated for complete independence from Mexico, while Peace Party representatives wished for Texas to remain part of Mexico, but only under the 1824 Constitution of Mexico. Although Austin was unable to attend, he did send a letter to the consultation, asking them to follow the Constitution of 1824 and to make it clear to Mexico that
1834-404: Is the historiographical name used to refer to the era of Texan history between 1821 and 1836, when it was part of Mexico. Mexico gained independence in 1821 after winning its war against Spain , which began in 1810. Initially, Mexican Texas operated similarly to Spanish Texas . Ratification of the 1824 Constitution of Mexico created a federal structure, and the province of Tejas was joined with
1965-652: The Bexar Remonstrance was issued to the Mexican Congress. It legally proclaimed the grievances that the population of Texas had suffered under the centralist style Mexican government. It addressed such issues as improper protection against Indian attacks and poor pay for militia, insufficient local and legislative representation, forbidding of immigration from the United States, lack of schools and funding for education, and various violations of
2096-701: The General Colonization Law in 1824, which enabled all heads of household, regardless of race, religion or immigrant status, to acquire land in Mexico. The first empresarial grant had been made under Spanish control to Stephen F. Austin , whose settlers, known as the Old Three Hundred , settled along the Brazos River in 1822. The grant was later ratified by the Mexican government. Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to
2227-550: The Old Three Hundred , arrived in 1822 to settle an empresarial grant that had been given to Stephen F. Austin by the Spanish. The group settled along the Brazos River , ranging from the near present-day Houston to Dallas . Shortly after they arrived, Austin learned that the new Mexican government had not ratified his father's land grant with Spain. He was forced to travel to Mexico City , 1,200 miles (1,931 km) away, to get permission for his colony. During his time in
2358-678: The Republic of Texas , Mexico refused to recognize Texas as a new country. In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain after the brutal and destructive Mexican War for Independence. Its territory included much of the former New Spain , including Spanish Texas . The victorious rebels issued a provisional constitution, the Plan de Iguala . This plan reaffirmed many of the ideals of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and granted equal citizenship rights to all races. Initially, there
2489-612: The Rio Grande . It is remarkable that Sam Houston was able to keep the Texans from killing Santa Anna since he had slaughtered the men of the Alamo and Goliad. In the ensuing Treaties of Velasco , Santa Anna promised he would convince the Mexican government to recognize Texan independence. Santa Anna was released to the United States, which then turned him over to Mexico. The newly appointed president of Mexico ( Anastasio Bustamante ) and
2620-416: The Rio Grande . With their departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas, and many of the Texians believed that the war was over. Burleson resigned his leadership of the army on December 15 and returned to his home. Many of the men did likewise, and Frank W. Johnson assumed command of the 400 soldiers who remained. The Mexican retreat gave the council the time to formalize
2751-460: The land patent for the dwellings. Unlike its predecessor, the Mexican law required immigrants to practice Catholicism and stressed that foreigners needed to learn Spanish. Settlers were supposed to own property or have a craft or useful profession, and all people wishing to live in Texas were expected to report to the nearest Mexican authority for permission to settle. The rules were widely disregarded and many families became squatters. As soon as
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#17327972561822882-454: The mission system , requiring missions more than ten years old to be converted into parishes, while newer missions would be given until 1842 to become secularized. Most of the missions had been secularized before the 1820s, and only Missions Refugio , Espiritu Santo and Rosario were not currently secularized. By 1830, these missions had been converted into parishes, and most of the mission Natives moved to other settlements in Texas. As
3013-522: The preamble to the United States Constitution and included a statement that Texas was now a "sovereign state". Delegates voted against this draft and insisted that the committee membership be changed. All committee members who supported independence were removed from their positions, and the new committee began deliberations anew. On November 13, this group produced a document that won approval. The new government would consist of
3144-492: The siege of Béxar to be over very quickly, so the Consultation was postponed until November 1. In the interim, this group of delegates granted power to the Permanent Council, which in practice included representation from only seven districts. The Permanent Council made weak attempts to govern the area, but primarily carried out Austin's orders. In its most controversial move, the council closed all land offices in
3275-482: The viceroy , the ayuntamientos "became the institution representing the interests of the local and regional oligarchical groups then setting deep roots into their territories." The Spanish Constitution of 1812 called for the transformation of the ayuntamiento, previously dominated by elites, into a representative institution with elections. Article 310 called for the establishment of an ayuntamiento for all settlements with 1,000 inhabitants. The term ayuntamiento
3406-564: The 1830s approximately 500 slaves had been illegally imported into Texas. By 1836, there were approximately 5,000 slaves in Texas. Exportation in the slave-owning areas of the state surpassed that of the non-slave-owning areas. A survey of Texas in 1834 found that the department of Bexar, which was mostly made up of Tejanos, had exported no goods. The Brazos department, including Austin's colonies and those of Green DeWitt, had exported 600,000 pesos worth of goods, including 5,000 bales of cotton. The department of Texas, which included
3537-501: The Alcades was issued January 22, 1824. It comprised a penal code and codes of criminal and civil procedure. The instructions authorized the creation of sheriff and constable offices and established a rudimentary court system. It relied on English common law concepts for defining criminal behavior and also established punishments for vices that Austin deemed disruptive, such as gambling, profane swearing, and public drunkenness. Under
3668-667: The Anahuac customs office had reopened. When Viezca escaped and reached Texas, no one recognized him as governor. As protests spread across Texas, Mexican officials increasingly blamed the settlers from the United States for the discontent. In an effort to secure his freedom, in January 1835 Austin had published his Exposition to the Public Regarding the Affairs of Texas . In this document, he explained that Texas wanted to be
3799-564: The Anahuac garrison to free Travis in an event that became known as the Anahuac Disturbances . Additional settlers had gathered in Brazoria to transport several cannon to aid the group in Anahuac. Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea , who led the garrison at Velasco, at the mouth of the Brazos River , refused to allow the ship carrying the cannon to pass. On June 26, settlers initiated the Battle of Velasco ; Ugartechea surrendered
3930-566: The Catalan cognate, ajuntament , while Galician ones use the word concello , Astur-Leonese conceyu and Basque udaletxea . Since ayuntamiento is a metonym for the building in which the council meets, it also translates to "city/ town hall " in English. With the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms in New Spain , which created intendancies and weakened the power of
4061-458: The Consultation, was endorsed by Stephen F. Austin , the first empresario in Texas, on September 8, which solidified support throughout the Anglo colonies. Austin became the de facto leader of the Consultation, making plans for the gathering, which would convene on October 15. He requested that each community send one delegate early, to form a Permanent Council to start gathering opinions. In
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4192-520: The Council elected Fannin to lead the mission instead. Smith was incensed when he learned the council had appointed their own commander for the expedition, and he became even more angry when Houston forwarded the letter from Neill, with an added note that he believed the Johnson mission was illegal, as the council had not had a quorum when it was authorized. By now, both Smith and Houston had decided that
4323-546: The Mexican Congress both rejected the Treaties of Velasco, declaring that because he had signed them under duress, they were null and void. Santa Anna later said, "I did promise to try to get a hearing for the Texas Commissioners, but this in itself did not bind the government to receive them." Ayuntamiento Ayuntamiento ( Spanish pronunciation: [aʝuntaˈmjento] ) is the general term for
4454-647: The Mexican Congress elected Antonio López de Santa Anna as President of Mexico in 1833, he appointed Valentín Gómez Farías as his vice president and turned over much of the governing of Mexico to him. However, the Vice President began implementing reforms, particularly impacting the Mexican Army and the Catholic Church. These reforms angered the powerful centrist forces, who urged Santa Anna to abandon his semi-retirement. Santa Anna agreed and led
4585-537: The Texas economy to the development of the state. Texas was temporarily exempted from the rule. On April 6, 1830, Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante ordered Texas to comply with the emancipation proclamation or face military intervention. To circumvent the law, many Anglo colonists converted their slaves into indentured servants for life. Others simply called their slaves indentured servants without legally changing their status. Slaveholders wishing to enter Mexico would force their slaves to sign contracts claiming that
4716-536: The United States could, for the first time, legally settle in Texas. Large tracts of land were granted to empresarios , who were responsible for recruiting settlers and establishing communities in Texas. With one exception, the new colonies were settled by foreigners. Tejanos , Texas residents of Mexican descent, were soon vastly outnumbered by Anglos . By 1834, an estimated 30,000 Anglos lived in Coahuila y Tejas, compared to only 7,800 Tejanos. By 1833, Texas
4847-412: The United States of America , but the Mexican constitution made Roman Catholicism the official, and only, religion of the country. Because it was sparsely populated, Texas was combined with Coahuila to create the state of Coahuila y Tejas . Texas had originally asked to become a territory if its statehood claim was denied, but after realizing that states controlled their own public lands, while as
4978-844: The United States, led to calls for a new convention. Brazoria passed a resolution asking for a convention to meet in March 1836 to declare independence. Soldiers in Goliad went a step further and drafted a declaration of independence on December 22. The Council passed a resolution to call the Convention of 1836 , to meet on March 1 in Washington-on-the-Brazos . In mid-November Governor Viesca, who had been freed by sympathetic soldiers, reached Goliad . The commander at Goliad, Philip Dimmitt welcomed Viesca but refused to recognize his authority as governor. This caused an uproar in
5109-452: The United States. Although Austin was nominated, he lost to Smith 31–22. James Robinson was elected lieutenant governor. As lieutenant governor, Robinson would preside over the General Council, which would consist of one representative from each municipality. Three delegates-Austin, Archer, and Wharton-were appointed as agents to the United States to try to raise money and volunteers. Austin immediately resigned his post as commander of
5240-556: The affected colonies were the Nashville Company run by Sterling C. Robertson and the Galveston Bay and Texas Land Company, run by David G. Burnet , Lorenzo de Zavala and Joseph Vehlein . Finally, he prohibited further immigration to Texas from the United States, although Anglos would still be welcome in other parts of Mexico. The ban and other measures did not stop U.S. citizens from migrating illegally to Texas by
5371-466: The area of Laredo, Texas , which became part of Tamaulipas . The capital of Texas moved from San Antonio to Monclova and then to Saltillo . Along with the states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, Coahuila y Tejas was under a unified military organization. With the formation of a new state government, the Texas provincial governing committee was forced to disband. Many Tejanos were reluctant to give up their self-rule. The 1824 constitution dismantled
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5502-540: The army at Bexar, they were unable to provide as much influence to the gathering as expected. An overwhelming percentage of the delegates who attended were men who had previous political experience. Twenty of them had been active in the Communities of Correspondence and Public Safety in their respective towns. A quorum finally formed on November 3, and delegates continued to arrive over the next few days. Although Austin had endorsed Lorenzo de Zavala to preside over
5633-610: The army to accomplish a specific task and staunchly maintained their right to elect their own leaders. On November 13, the council officially established a regular army . Houston was appointed to command this new Provisional Army of Texas, subject to the orders of the governor. Houston was instructed to raise an army from scratch; because the volunteers had organized before the Consultation convened, they could not be forced to accept Houston as their commander. The new army should consist of 2,500 men, who would enlist for 2-year terms in exchange for land grants. After consulting with some of
5764-414: The authority to confiscate land and he should honor the claims of the previous settlers. After multiple confrontations, on December 16, 1826, Edwards, his brothers, and 30 settlers issued a declaration of independence and called themselves the Republic of Fredonia . Other empresarios disassociated themselves from Edwards, and Austin sent 250 militiamen to Nacogdoches to help the Mexican forces quell
5895-494: The bored Texian troops from deserting the army. Most importantly, it would move the war zone outside of Texas. The governor initially supported the plan, and asked Houston to organize the expedition; Houston appointed James Bowie to lead the expedition, but Bowie did not receive his orders for several weeks. The Council asked Burleson, the commander of the volunteers at Bexar, to lead the expedition. Burleson had already resigned, and his elected replacement, Johnson, instead received
6026-422: The capital of the state was transferred from Saltillo to Monclova . The following year, centralists began urging Santa Anna to overturn the federal system and introduce centralism. Some legislators believed that centralism would be the only way to retain Texas, as newspapers in the United States continued to make statements about the forthcoming annexation of Texas. When the national congress attempted to centralize
6157-546: The capitol, Austin impressed various important people in the government by offering to draw a map of Texas, to help remove sediment obstructing navigation of the Colorado River , and by promising to carry out an Indian pacification campaign. On February 18, 1823, ten months after Austin arrived in Mexico City, Agustin I approved his colonization contract. One month later, Agustin abdicated as emperor, and
6288-528: The centralists. The political chief of the Nacogdoches region told the militias to take arms against the Mexican troops in July 1835 and asked the rest of the citizens to form a volunteer army. "Texas committees" in cities such as New Orleans and New York City mustered volunteers and began sending an army and money to assist the Texas colonists in their fight. Austin commanded the militias, while Sam Houston
6419-502: The commander at Matamoros from his post. In October, 55 delegates from Texas communities attended the Convention of 1832 in San Felipe. The delegates drafted three petitions to the Congress of Mexico. They wished for an annulment of Article 11 of the colonization law of 1830 (which prohibited foreign settlement as well as customs reform), recognition of squatters as valid immigrants, and a separate state for Texas. On December 19, 1832,
6550-523: The convention and war began, the Texian Militia took up arms against Mexican soldiers at the Battle of Gonzales . The convention was postponed until November 1 after many of the delegates joined the newly organized volunteer Texian Army to initiate a siege of the Mexican garrison at San Antonio de Bexar . On November 3, a quorum was reached in San Antonio. Within days, the delegates passed
6681-580: The convention, the political chief of the department of the Brazos called for a meeting of representatives of municipalities in that department on August 1. Only four of the seven appointed delegates appeared. Discovering there was no official agenda, the four men returned home without actually doing anything. As a response to the Anahuac disturbances , the commander of the Mexican army in Texas, Domingo de Ugartechea , requested reinforcements to help capture
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#17327972561826812-530: The council named several men, simultaneously, to organize and lead the assault, angry at the effect the expedition was having on existing Texian garrisons, Smith dissolved the council. Alleging that Smith did not have the authority to disband them, council members impeached him and lieutenant governor James W. Robinson was named acting governor. The Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821) severed Spain's control over much of its North American territories , including Texas . The 1824 Constitution of Mexico defined
6943-419: The delegates fully intended for Texas to become an independent nation, eventually. Fifty-seven delegates signed the resolution. de Zavala translated it into Spanish, and copies in both languages were ordered to be printed and distributed to residents. A committee was immediately established to design a provisional government, with Henry Smith as chair. The committee's first proposal was a near-verbatim copy of
7074-576: The dissidents. Small groups of soldiers began arriving in early August; in response, local municipalities formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety and unofficial militias. On August 9, citizens at a public meeting in Brazoria again broached the idea of a larger political convention. Other communities debated whether to participate in such a convention, and whether its goals should be simply an exchange of opinions or to create an interim government. The proposed political gathering, which became known as
7205-403: The document," the delegates agreed that Texas would pay for the army, would repay any goods purchased by its agents, and would give volunteers public lands. These were powers reserved for states, and under the Constitution of 1824 Texas was not a stand-alone state. With these words, delegates violated the very constitution they had sworn to uphold. Davis asserts that this provision signified that
7336-440: The eastern coast of Mexico, near Tampico in an attempt to reclaim the country for Spain . At the request of the government, Austin mustered a local militia to help defend Texas if the invasion were to reach the northern regions of the country. Yucatan governor Antonio López de Santa Anna led a force of Mexican troops to halt the invasion. Barradas surrendered as his troops suffered greatly from tropical diseases, and Santa Anna
7467-583: The eastern settlements, expected to export 2,000 bales of cotton and 5,000 head of cattle. Bustamante implemented other measures to make immigration less desirable for Anglo-Americans. He rescinded the property tax law, which had exempted immigrants from paying taxes for ten years. He further increased tariffs on goods entering Mexico from the United States, causing their prices to rise. The 1830s laws also brought settlement contracts under federal rather than state control. Colonies that did not have at least 150 inhabitants would be canceled. Among
7598-620: The encroachments of military despots and in defense of the Republican principles of the federal constitution of Mexico of 1824." The resolution further specified that Texas reserved the right to create an independent government as long as Mexico was not governed by that document . The members hoped that this wording would allow them to gain support from both federalists within Mexico and from the United States. The resolution passed 33–14. In what historian William C. Davis dubbed "the three shortest yet perhaps most significant resolutions in
7729-645: The end of the year, however, Santa Anna began to exhibit centralist tendencies, and in 1835 he revoked the Constitution of 1824 and began consolidating his power. In various parts of the country federalists revolted, and in May 1835 Santa Anna brutally crushed a revolt in Zacatecas; over 2,000 noncombatants were killed. The federalists, including Agustín Viesca , the governor of Coahuila y Tejas, were afraid that Santa Anna would march against Coahuila after subduing
7860-492: The expedition had little chance of success. Smith denounced the expedition as idiocy and labelled its supporters either fools or traitors. He then disbanded the council until March 1 unless they agreed to renounce the Matamoros Expedition. The council determined that Smith had no authority to dismiss them. They soon impeached Smith and named the lieutenant governor, Robinson, Acting Governor. The documents forming
7991-459: The federal pact. The colonists maintained that Mexico had invited them to move to the country and they were determined "to enjoy 'the republican institutions to which they were accustomed in their native land, the United States of America.'" The declaration did not acknowledge that Mexico had attempted to incorporate some of their demands. The new Texas constitution specifically allowed slavery and said no free person of African descent could reside in
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#17327972561828122-686: The few settlers in the region needed help. In the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids, the government liberalized its immigration policies for the region for the first time, and settlers from the United States were permitted in the colonies for the first time. In the late 18th century, Spain had stopped allocating new parcels of land in San Antonio and La Bahia , making it difficult for some families to accommodate their growth. Occupancy rights were granted to people in
8253-598: The following day. Several days later, Colonel Jose de las Piedras arrived from Nacogdoches to assist Bradburn. He removed Bradburn from his command, and the settlers dispersed. In 1832, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led an insurrection against Mexican president Bustamante. Although most of the Mexican Army supported the Bustamante administration, this led to a small civil war. Many of the Anglo settlers sided with Santa Anna and followed General José Antonio Mexía , who led soldiers in Texas against Bustamante. Mexia removed
8384-400: The following year. For protection, the political chief of the region granted the community a small cannon . Land speculators flooded into Texas. Colonization laws limited Anglos to only one league of land, but Mexican nationals were in many cases eligible for up to 11 leagues. Anglo speculators would often convince a Mexican national to claim his 11 leagues and then sell the land to
8515-535: The garrison; many supported the governor, while others believed that Texas should be an independent country and should therefore not recognize the Mexican governor. Viesca traveled to San Felipe to meet with the General Council, who also refused to recognize his authority as governor. Viesca joined several others in advocating a plan to attack centralist troops in Matamoros . They hoped this Matamoros Expedition would inspire other federalist states to revolt and keep
8646-432: The gathering, delegates elected Branch Tanner Archer of Brazoria . In a speech after his appointment, Archer urged his comrades "to divest yourselves of all party feelings, to discard every selfish motive, and look alone to the true interest of your country." Before the group could move towards official business, Houston rose to a make speech. He gave thanks to many for actions taken over the recent months. His eloquence
8777-504: The government and begin planning for the future, without the threat of attack. Little was accomplished. The new Texas government had no funds, so the military was granted the authority to impress any supplies that would be useful. This policy soon resulted in an almost universal hatred of the council, as food and supplies became scarce, especially in the areas around Goliad and Béxar, where Texian troops were stationed. The Telegraph and Texas Register noted that "some are not willing, under
8908-422: The hostilities were not an attempt for independence but instead a determination to fight for their rights as Mexican citizens. On November 4, John Wharton was named chair of a committee to determine the purpose of the war. After three full days of deliberation failed to produce a resolution, delegates began a full debate on the floor. The turning point of the discussion came when Houston, who many believed to be
9039-409: The importation of slaves into Spanish territories, and if brought to the area, they would be freed. Mexico adopted a similar law in 1824. The General Colonization Law enabled all heads of household who were citizens of or immigrants to Mexico to be eligible to claim land. The law did not differentiate among races or social stature, and people who had been granted occupancy rights would be able to claim
9170-421: The interim, hostilities between Mexican soldiers and Texian colonists increased, and in early October Texian Militia attacked a Mexican army contingent which had been sent to retrieve a cannon that had previously been loaned to Gonzales. This small skirmish marked the official start of the Texas Revolution . Gonzales became a rallying point for Texas settlers who opposed the centralist policies, and men flocked to
9301-463: The laws and jurisdiction of a Mexican magistrate which should be placed in each of them, since under their own colonists as judges, they do nothing more than practice their own laws which they have practiced since they were born, forgetting the ones they have sworn to obey, these being the laws of our Supreme Government.'" Many Americans thought the United States had been cheated out of Texas. American land speculators believed they could make fortunes in
9432-737: The legislature, instead ordering that the session reconvene in Béxar, further from the influence of the Mexican army. Viesca was arrested before he reached Texas. Citizens in the states of Oaxaca and Zacatecas took up arms. Public opinion in Texas was divided. In June 1835, one group staged a minor revolt against customs duties in Anahuac . Resolutions by the city councils in Mina , Gonzales, Goliad, and Columbia denounced their actions. Civic leaders in Mina were so disgusted they called for public meetings to determine whether settlers supported independence,
9563-450: The majority of the men and sent a strong message to Houston asking for reinforcements and more supplies. 36 people attend the consultation Although Bowie also appeared before the council with his written orders from Houston to lead the Matamoros Expedition, on January 6 the Council authorized Johnson to lead the expedition. Johnson initially declined the commission, but changed his mind the following day. Without revoking Johnson's commission,
9694-573: The message. While Johnson journeyed to San Felipe to meet with the council, on December 30, Johnson's aide-de-camp, James Grant led 200 men from Béxar to travel to Goliad to prepare for the expedition. Only 100 Texians remained at the Alamo Mission in Bexar, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James C. Neill . Neill was disgusted that Johnson had stripped the Alamo of almost all provisions and
9825-521: The military commander for Texas that "'No faith can be placed in the Anglo-American colonists because they are continually demonstrating that they absolutely refuse to be subordinate, unless they find it convenient to what they want anyway, all of which I believe will be very detrimental to us for them to be our neighbors if we do not in time, clip the wings of their audacity by stationing a strong detachment in each new settlement which will enforce
9956-525: The missions were secularized, the mission lands were distributed amongst the Natives, who would later be taxed on the profits. The new Mexican government was bankrupt and had little money to devote to the military. Settlers were empowered to create their own militias to help control hostile Native American tribes. Texas faced raids from both the Apache and Comanche tribes, and with little military support
10087-521: The nation, a civil war ensued. As fighting erupted, Saltillo declared that Monclova had been illegally made the state capitol and selected its own governor. Texans in Saltillo recommended establishing a provisional government in Bexar during the unrest to strengthen the autonomy of Texas. Juan Seguin , political chief of Bexar, called for a town meeting to create a government but was forced to postpone it when news arrived of approaching Mexican troops. By
10218-399: The national colonization law was passed, approval for settlement contracts for Texas was the responsibility of the state government in Saltillo. They were soon besieged by foreign speculators wanting to bring colonists into the state. Coahuila y Tejas implemented the federal law in 1825. At this time, about 3500 people lived in Texas, mostly congregated at San Antonio and La Bahia. Under
10349-426: The new country as a federal republic with nineteen states and four territories. Due to limited population and extremely poor economies, the provinces of Texas and Coahuila were combined to become the state Coahuila y Tejas . In the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids, the new government liberalized immigration policies for the region. Under the General Colonization Law people from
10480-549: The new country without Congress's consent. Many of the Tejanos left the fight after the declaration of independence as they were disappointed with the growing anti-Mexican rhetoric. Only Seguin's company remained in the Texian Army. The war ended with the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, with the birth of the Republic of Texas . Santa Anna was taken prisoner, and the Mexican troops were forced to withdraw south of
10611-466: The new law, people who did not already possess property in Texas could claim one square league (4438 acres) of irrigable land, with an additional league available to those who owned cattle. Soldiers were given first choice of land, followed by citizens and immigrants. Empresarios and individuals with large families were exempt from the limit. Those who had owned land under Spanish control were allowed to retain their property as long as they had not fought on
10742-444: The newly created republican congress nullified all acts of his government, including Austin's colonization contract. Many of Austin's new friends in Mexico praised his integrity before the congress, and his contract was re-approved in mid-April. On his return to Texas in July 1823, Austin established San Felipe de Austin as the new headquarters for his colony. There was no shortage of people willing to come to Texas. The United States
10873-421: The northeast part of Texas, but the new residents had no official ownership of the land on which they lived. Just before Mexico achieved independence, Spain reversed its policies and passed a colonization law. Although the law did not state a religious requirement for settlers in Texas, it was understood that Spain's only religion was Catholicism, per the 1812 Constitution. Notably, article 28 of this law prohibited
11004-525: The officers currently at the siege of Béxar, notably Travis and James W. Fannin , the council chose to expand the army. On December 5 they created a Corps of Permanent Volunteers, which would have a shorter enlistment period and more autonomy. This move hindered Houston's efforts to fill his regular army; most citizens preferred to join the Permanent Volunteers. On December 11, the Mexican troops in Béxar surrendered and agreed to march south of
11135-416: The political chief of Texas. On November 27, 1823, the people of Mexico elected congressional representatives and set out to create a new constitution. Texas was represented in congress by Erasmo Seguin . A new Mexican constitution was adopted on October 4, 1824, making the country a federal republic with nineteen states and four territories. The constitution was modelled on the constitution of
11266-543: The port would aid the Texian cause. However, the " Tampico Expedition " that he began on November 6, 1835, failed. In 1835 Juan Seguin, Plácido Benavides , Manuel Leal , and Salvador Flores began raising companies of volunteers from the San Antonio and Victoria areas to support the federalist cause. By the end of the year over 100 Tejanos had joined the Federal Army of Texas to defend the Constitution of 1824 against
11397-638: The precursors to the Texas Rangers . After the Karankawa repeatedly attacked the settlers, Austin organized a militia to fight back; they almost annihilated the tribe. Comanches were a threat to some of the colonies. Green Dewitt began his colony west of Austin's in December 1825. In July 1826 his headquarters, Gonzales , was burned to the ground in a Comanche attack. All but one colonist escaped to San Felipe. They returned to rebuild their colony
11528-476: The present government, to do any duty...That our government is bad, all acknowledge, and no one will deny." Citing an aborted coup attempt on November 25, Smith proposed a bill making it treasonous to make threats against the provisional government. The council, by now used to "the governor's addiction to exaggerated and inflammatory rhetoric", ignored him. On December 19, a group of prominent citizens, led by Moseley Baker , Wylie Martin , and William Pettus, held
11659-408: The promotion of the true interests of the country". Weary of the infighting and unsure who was actually in charge, Council members slowly stopped appearing. In the hopes of salvaging a government, Robinson appointed four members to an Advisory Committee. Soon, this dwindled to only two members. The interim government was essentially over by the end of January. Mexican Texas Mexican Texas
11790-414: The province of Coahuila to form the state of Coahuila y Tejas . In 1821, approximately 3,500 settlers lived in the whole of Tejas, concentrated mostly in San Antonio and La Bahia , although authorities had tried to encourage development along the frontier. The settler population was overwhelmingly outnumbered by indigenous people in the province. To increase the number of settlers, Mexico enacted
11921-417: The provisional government, however, did not grant the council the authority to impeach the governor. On January 12, Smith wrote a conciliatory letter to the council: "I admit that I [used] language beyond the rules of decorum", and declared that if the council would admit that their actions regarding the Matamoros Expedition were wrong he would reinstate them so that "the two branches [would] again harmonize to
12052-483: The reaction against liberalization, forcing Gómez Farías and his Federalist supporters, including Mexican General José Antonio Mexía , to flee into exile in the United States. Some went to New Orleans , where they planned to resist the Centralist government. Although the United States government remained officially neutral in the Mexican struggle between Santa Anna's Centralists and Gomez Farias' Federalists, there
12183-439: The rebels a great deal of military equipment. Some Texans traveled to the United States seeking aid. Although they were denied a loan, they managed to heavily advertise the availability of land in Texas, ensuring that more volunteers would come to fight. Texas formally declared independence at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 2, 1836. The revolt was justified as necessary to protect basic rights and because Mexico had annulled
12314-472: The rebels in Zacatecas , so they disbanded the state legislature on May 21, 1835, and authorized the governor to set up an office in a different part of the state. Viezca was arrested as he traveled to San Antonio. Under the pretext of being angry over Viezca's imprisonment the people of Anahuac organized a resistance under Travis. Their real grievance was that the two-year grace period on tariffs had ended and
12445-670: The region on October 27, to prevent speculators from seizing land during the unrest. The siege of Béxar began in late October. Newly arrived immigrant Sam Houston traveled to Béxar to exhort the delegates to leave the siege and come to the Consultation. In a compromise, the officers voted to allow delegates who were members of the rank-and-file or were line officers to leave the siege, while those who were staff officers would remain to oversee military operations. William B. Travis , William Wharton , and Stephen F. Austin remained behind, while twenty delegates, including James Bowie , accompanied Houston to San Felipe. Each municipality in Texas
12576-401: The region to monitor immigration and customs practices. Angry colonists held a convention in 1832 to demand that U.S. citizens be allowed to immigrate to Tejas. At a convention the following year , colonists proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state. Although Mexico implemented several measures to appease the colonists, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna 's measures to transform Mexico from
12707-418: The remainder were unaligned. Only 58 of these men attended. None of the delegates from the war areas - Béxar, Goliad, Refugio , Victoria , and San Patricio - appeared. This effectively ensured that there were no Tejano delegates. Many delegates from the other regions of Texas remained in the army or stayed home to defend their families. Because Austin and many of his Peace Party supporters were still with
12838-458: The repudiated republican style Constitution of 1824. Santa Anna was elected the president of Mexico on January 19, 1833. A resulting second convention was held that year in April. This one, attended by recent arrivals such as Sam Houston , appointed a commission to draft a constitution for a new Mexican state of Texas and selected delegates to represent Texas before the federal government. Austin
12969-438: The revolt. Edwards was finally forced to flee Mexican territory. After hearing reports of other racial issues, the Mexican government asked General Manuel Mier y Teran to investigate the outcome of the 1825 colonization law in Texas. In 1829, Mier y Teran issued his report, which concluded that most Anglo Americans refused to be naturalized and tried to isolate themselves from Mexicans. He also noted that slave reforms passed by
13100-550: The settlement from Indian attacks, although all Indians in the area were peaceful. Mexican law forbade residents from creating militias, so Bradburn arrested the ringleader, Patrick C. Jack. Citizens were very angry. In Brazoria, residents held a town meeting to decide what to do. William H. Wharton complained that there was little support within Austin's colony to oppose Bradburn with military force; he and other advocates of armed conflict felt that their opposition from other settlers
13231-456: The settlers immediately. He chose not to do so, allowing the Robertson's Colony to be saved. The fort closed in 1832. After having received no replacements or supplies, the commander finally ordered all of the soldiers to return to San Antonio. Anahuac was placed under the control of Colonel Juan Davis Bradburn . Bradburn enforced the 1830 laws strictly, angering many colonists. He forbade
13362-504: The side of the Spanish during the Mexican War of Independence. Immigrants were subject to the same policies as Mexican citizens, and Native Americans who migrated to Texas after Mexican independence and were not indigenous to the area would be treated as immigrants. Approximately 3420 land grant applications were submitted by immigrants and naturalized citizens, many of them Anglo-Americans . The first group of colonists, known as
13493-511: The slaves owed money and would work to pay the debt. The low wages the slave would receive made repayment impossible, and the debt would be inherited, even though no slave would receive wages until age eighteen. This tactic was outlawed by an 1832 state law which prohibited worker contracts from lasting more than ten years. A small number of slaves were imported illegally from the West Indies or Africa. The British consul estimated that in
13624-522: The speculator through a power of attorney. In 1825, Mexican authorities became concerned with the actions of empresario Haden Edwards in Nacogdoches . Edwards had threatened to confiscate the land of any Mexican already living in the area in which he planned to bring settlers unless the Mexicans could present written deeds to the property. Mexican authorities promptly told him that he did not have
13755-539: The state commissioner from granting property titles to squatters and insisted on enforcing the law freeing any slave who set foot in Mexican territory. He and his men also confiscated settlers goods for their own personal wealth. This angered many of the Anglos, believing that their rights under the Mexican Constitution of 1824 were being violated. In 1832, local men organized a militia, supposedly to protect
13886-416: The state legislature. Furthermore, trial by jury was introduced, and English was authorized as a second language. An Anglo American, Jefferson Chambers, was appointed superior circuit judge of Texas in 1835 and extensions were granted for settlement contracts that had not met their conditions for the number of settlers. Six English-speaking Texan communities were elevated to municipalities. In March 1833,
14017-436: The state religion. In Austin's colony, the local priest formally converted new arrivals but then allowed them to worship as they pleased. Austin was granted the rank of lieutenant colonel of the militia, and he was given absolute authority over all justice, excluding the sentencing for capital crimes. To maintain order within his colony, he issued the first Anglo-American law code in Texas. His Instructions and Regulations for
14148-424: The state were being ignored. Although many Mexicans wanted to abolish slavery, fears of an economic crisis if all of the slaves were simultaneously freed led to a gradual emancipation policy. In 1823, Mexico forbade the sale or purchase of slaves and required that the children of slaves be freed when they reached fourteen. Any slave introduced into Mexico by purchase or trade would also be freed. By 1825, however,
14279-691: The state, the majority coming from the American South , while only one colony was settled by Mexican nationals, and two by European immigrants. Mexico officials became concerned about attitudes among the Anglo-Americans in Tejas; for instance, their insistence on bringing slaves into the territory. The legislature passed the Law of April 6, 1830 , which prohibited further immigration by U.S. citizens. The government established several new presidios in
14410-404: The term ayuntamiento is for the council (which refers to itself as the H. Ayuntamiento , or el Honorable Ayuntamiento ). Puerto Rican municipalities have a legislatura municipal . In Peru the term ayuntamiento is never used; instead, it is municipalidad , consejo provincial or consejo distrital (district council). Executive functions in most of these countries
14541-479: The terms of the colonization contracts, the empresarios were responsible for providing security within their lands. In 1823 Austin created a company of men who would patrol his colony and protect the colonists from Native attacks and to defuse internal issues. The initial company, known as Ranger Company, comprised 10 volunteers who served terms of 3–6 months and were paid in land. The men were not uniformed and were not subject to military law or regulation. They were
14672-409: The thousands. By 1834, it was estimated that over 30,000 Anglos lived in Texas, compared to only 7,800 Mexicans. Anglos often viewed the Mexicans as foreigners and intruders. The feeling was often returned; Rafael Antonio Manchola , son-in-law of empresario Martín De León , served as the commander of the presidio at La Bahia from 1828 to 1830 and then as the alcalde of Goliad. He warned
14803-663: The town council, or cabildo , of a municipality or, sometimes, as is often the case in Spain and Latin America , for the municipality itself. Ayuntamiento is mainly used in Spain; in Latin America alcaldía is also for municipal governing bodies, especially the executive ones, where the legislative body and the executive body are two separate entities. In Catalan -speaking parts of Spain, municipalities generally use
14934-469: The town. On October 11, the Texian Militia formed themselves into a volunteer Texian Army and elected Austin as their commander. Many of the Consultation delegates had also gathered in Gonzales, and rather than wait for the session to begin, they joined the army on a march against the Mexican garrison at Béxar. By October 16, only 31 delegates had arrived in San Felipe, short of a quorum. Most expected
15065-529: The vast region of Texas, and American politicians believed Texas could help maintain a balance of power between free and slave states. In 1827, American president John Quincy Adams offered US$ 1 million for Texas. Mexican president Guadalupe Victoria refused. Two years later, Andrew Jackson increased the United States' offer to $ 5 million; President Vicente Guerrero again declined to sell. In July 1829, Mexican authorities had other concerns, as General Isidro Barradas landed 2,700 Spanish troops to
15196-616: The volunteers; the troops elected Edward Burleson as their new leader. Houston was appointed to the Select Committee on Indian Affairs, as he had spent much of his career dealing with Indian nations. The Texians needed the support of the Indians (or at least their neutrality) to win their fight against Mexico. The Consultation officially adjourned on November 15, leaving the new provisional government in charge. The soldiers currently fighting near Béxar were volunteers, who joined
15327-485: Was as deep as that of the Mexican soldiers in the area. Bradburn eventually agreed to release Jack, and tensions cooled for a brief period. In May 1832, Bradburn received a letter, ostensibly from a friend, warning that 100 armed men were stationed 40 miles (64 km) away, intent on reclaiming runaway slaves held by Bradburn. When Bradburn realized that the letter was a hoax, he arrested William Barret Travis for questioning. He intended to send Travis to Matamoros for
15458-457: Was chosen to deliver the proposed constitution to Santa Anna's government in Mexico City. Although Austin pointed out that Texas had been given permission to form a separate state and had now grown to 46,500 inhabitants, the political chief of Bexar warned the government that the Anglos might be proposing separate statehood as part of a plan to join with the United States. Austin was arrested on November 21, 1833, on suspicion of treason. Austin
15589-429: Was disagreement over whether Mexico should be a federal republic or a monarchy . The first monarch, Agustín I , abdicated in March 1823. The following month the citizens of San Antonio de Bexar established a governing committee for the province of Texas consisting of seven representatives from San Antonio, one from La Bahia, and one from Nacogdoches. In July, a new national provisional government named Luciano Garcia as
15720-531: Was divided into three political divisions: the Department of Béxar, the Department of Nacogdoches , and the Department of the Brazos. By late 1834, the Mexican government began transitioning from a federalist model to centralism . Santa Anna overturned the 1824 Constitution, dismissed the state legislatures, and ordered all militias disbanded. Federalists throughout Mexico were appalled. The governor of Coahuila y Tejas, Agustín Viesca , refused to dissolve
15851-418: Was encouraged to send five delegates to the convention. Some municipalities, including Nacogdoches, elected seven. A total of 98 delegates were elected. These men were established citizens, with an average length of residence of seven years, with an average age of 38. Approximately one-third of the delegates were staunch supporters of the Constitution of 1824, another third strongly advocated independence, and
15982-497: Was established along Galveston Bay in 1831 at the site of present-day Anahuac . It became the first port in Texas to collect customs. A second custom port, Velasco , was established at the mouth of the Brazos River, while a third garrison established Fort Teran on the Neches River below Nacogdoches to combat smuggling and illegal immigration. Mier y Teran further ordered the garrison at Bexar to abandon their fort and create
16113-458: Was hailed as a hero. During the invasion, the Mexican Congress had granted war powers to President Guerrero, making him essentially a monarch. This alarmed the Anglo colonists in Texas, who were accustomed to a separation of powers. Mier y Teran's 1828 report had recommended new garrisons in Texas which could oversee the Anglo colonists and encourage Mexicans to resettle in the area. The new garrisons were to be partly staffed by convicts. The first
16244-579: Was imprisoned for about a year. Santa Anna decided to do away with the Mexican Constitution of 1824 and became a monarch. At this point, Austin switched from promoting peace to supporting separation from Mexico. The Mexican government attempted to address some of the Texans' concerns. Article 11 was repealed on November 21, 1833, allowing American immigrants to again flow into Texas. Five months later, Coahuila y Tejas separated Texas into three departments, San Antonio-Bexar, Brazos, and Nacogdoches, with political chiefs for each department and more representation in
16375-433: Was later granted permission to resettle 800 other families in Texas. Twenty-three other empresarios also brought immigrants to Texas. Of these, only one of the empresarios, Martín De León settled citizens from within Mexico; the others came primarily from the United States. Many of the Anglo settlers owned slaves. All colonists were expected to become naturalized Mexican citizens, and they were also supposed to follow
16506-558: Was much political sympathy favoring the separation of Texas from Mexico. A number of men, known as " filibusters ", were attracted to militia-type organizations such as the New Orleans Greys , preparing to go fight for Texas independence. General Mexia soon found financing in New Orleans and began raising an expedition to attack the important Mexican port of Tampico. He persuaded influential people in New Orleans that seizing
16637-404: Was officially outlawed in Mexico. Austin feared that the edict would cause widespread discontent and tried to suppress publication of it. Rumors of the new law quickly spread throughout the area and the colonists seemed on the brink of revolt. The governor of Coahuila y Tejas, Jose Maria Viesca , wrote to the president to explain the importance of slavery to the Texas economy, and the importance of
16768-515: Was often preceded by the word excelentísimo ("most excellent"), when referring to the council. This phrase is often abbreviated " Exc. Ay. ". Other names for ayuntamiento have been casa de cabildo , casa capitular , casa consistorial and casa del concejo . In Latin America several terms exist for the legislative bodies of municipalities. The term consejo is used in Argentina , Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , and Peru . In Mexico
16899-456: Was placed in charge of the volunteers. The first violent incident occurred on October 2 at the Battle of Gonzales . The Consultation met in November to discuss the reasons for the revolt. The Consultation denounced centralism and organized a provisional state government based "'on the principles of the 1824 Constitution'". The following month, San Antonio surrendered to the Anglos, giving
17030-583: Was still struggling with the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 , and soaring land prices within the United States made the Mexican land policy seem very generous. In 1827 Austin received a second grant allowing him to settle 100 families along the Old San Antonio Road to Nacogdoches, near what is now Bastrop . The location was chosen at the behest of the Tejanos, who hoped that colonists in that area could help defend against Comanche raids. Austin
17161-432: Was unimportant and unnecessary, except as a means for him to become better known to the other delegates. For the remainder of the day, the delegates drafted rules of order. Similar to those used in the legislative bodies of the United States and Europe, the rules emphasized courtesy. In an unusual move, the rules prohibited delegates from abstaining from voting. As president, Archer was forbidden from voting except to break
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