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110-547: The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act concerns all textile fiber products other than wool, which is already governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prevents misinformation about the fiber content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice and compel to function in a certain way. The act specifies the requirement of textile products such as guidelines about labelling, tagging, Country of origin , fiber designation etc. The act also covers

220-529: A frigidarium with two southern pools and an eastern swimming pool . Following the revolt, the Diocletian Reforms saw the British administration restructured. Londinium is universally supposed to have been the capital of one of them, but it remains unclear where the new provinces were, whether there were initially three or four in total, and whether Valentia represented a fifth province or

330-475: A temple of Isis was located there. Londinium grew up as a vicus and soon became an important port for trade between Roman Britain and the Roman provinces on the continent. Tacitus wrote that at the time of the uprising of Boudica , "Londinium... though undistinguished by the name of ' colony ', was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels." Depending on the time of its creation,

440-411: A black border, 'with a tessellated floor, suggesting it may have had a higher status than normal, possibly acting as an antechamber for the aedes or shrine-room'. The alignment of the church is close to the lines of the basilica, being off by just two degrees, and it is feasible for the understructure to have utilized the dry solid 2nd century basilica wall fabric for support. If St Peter's was built in

550-493: A car marketer makes that is required by the AALA is exempt from the commission's policy. When a company makes claims in advertising or promotional materials that go beyond the AALA requirements, it will be held to the commission's standard. The 2010 Fur Products Labeling Act requires the country of origin of imported furs to be disclosed on all labels and in all advertising. The mandatory country-of-origin labeling of food sold in

660-577: A first-century flagon suggests that a temple of Isis had existed much earlier. The Egyptian goddess was believed to have influence over the sea and hence the safety of seafarers. In 286, the emperor Maximian issued a death sentence against Carausius , admiral of the Roman navy 's Britannic fleet ( Classis Britannica ), on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon piracy and of having embezzled recovered treasure. Carausius responded by consolidating his allies and territory and revolting. After fending off Maximian's first assault in 288, he declared

770-507: A global survey carried out by Nielsen reported that country-of-origin image has a significant influence on consumer perceptions and behaviours, and, in situations in which additional information is unavailable or difficult to get, can be the sole determinant of whether or not someone buys a product. Its effect is strongest on consumers who do not know much about the product or product type and weakest on consumers who are well-informed. Sensitivity to country of origin varies by product category. It

880-454: A grid skewed by major roads passing from the bridgehead and by changes in alignment produced by crossings over the local streams. It recovered after about a decade. The first forum was constructed in the 70s or 80s and has been excavated, showing it had an open courtyard with a basilica and several shops around it, altogether measuring about 100 m × 50 m (330 ft × 160 ft). The basilica would have functioned as

990-569: A grid. The main streets were 9–10 m (30–33 ft) wide, while side streets were usually about 5 m (16 ft) wide. In 60 or 61 AD, a little more than ten years after Londinium was founded, the king of the Iceni died. He had possibly been installed by the Romans after the Iceni 's failed revolt against Publius Ostorius Scapula 's disarmament of the allied tribes in 47 or may have assisted

1100-508: A guesthouse. A marble slab with a dedication to the god Mars was discovered in the temple complex. The inscription mentions Londiniensi ('the Londoners'), the earliest known reference naming the people of London. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium had many large, well-equipped stone buildings, some of which were richly adorned with wall paintings and floor mosaics, and had subfloor hypocausts . The Roman house at Billingsgate

1210-465: A label attached to the inside center of the neck, either midway between the shoulder seams or very near another label attached to the inside center of the neck. On a garment without a neck and on other kinds of textile products, the country of origin must appear on a conspicuous and readily accessible label on the inside or outside of the product. Catalogs and other mail order promotional materials for textile and wool products, including those disseminated on

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1320-517: A large-scale attack forced Emperor Julian to send troops to deal with the problem. Large efforts were made to improve Londinium's defences around the same time. At least 22 semi-circular towers were added to the city walls to provide platforms for ballistae and the present state of the river wall suggests hurried repair work around this time. In 367, the Great Conspiracy saw a coordinated invasion of Picts, Gaels, and Saxons joined with

1430-460: A major fire that destroyed much of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion resulted. Londinium supported a smaller but stable settlement population as archaeologists have found that much of

1540-519: A massive pier base for such a bridge were found in 1981 close by the modern London Bridge . Some Claudian -era camp ditches have been discovered, but archaeological excavations undertaken since the 1970s by the Department of Urban Archaeology at the Museum of London (now MOLAS ) have suggested the early settlement was largely the product of private enterprise . A timber drain by the side of

1650-476: A new Britannic Empire and issued coins to that effect. Constantius Chlorus 's sack of his Gallic base at Gesoriacum ( Boulogne ), however, led his treasurer Allectus to assassinate and replace him. In 296, Chlorus mounted an invasion of Britain that prompted Allectus's Frankish mercenaries to sack Londinium. They were only stopped by the arrival of a flotilla of Roman warships on the Thames, which slaughtered

1760-411: A pagan shrine room (also known as an aedes ). Wheeler proposed that a Christian church might have been established on its site and that this accounted for the later medieval legends. The possible existence of the shrine room is supported by 19th-century excavations under Gracechurch Street , immediately adjacent to the church's eastern end. These unearthed an adjoining room covered in yellow panels with

1870-618: A product can have several possible definitions. It can refer to: The inclusion of place of origin on manufactured goods has an ancient history. In antiquity, informal branding which included details such as the name of manufacturer and place of origin were used by consumers as important clues as to product quality. David Wengrow has found archaeological evidence of brands, which often included origin of manufacture, dating to around 4,000 years ago. Producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which, over time, were transformed into clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with

1980-483: A renaming of an older one. In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales listed "Londonia" as the capital of Flavia , having had Britannia Prima ( Wales ) and Secunda ( Kent ) severed from the territory of Upper Britain. Modern scholars more often list Londinium as the capital of Maxima Caesariensis on the assumption that the presence of the diocesan vicar in London would have required its provincial governor to outrank

2090-401: A requirement that many retail establishments provide, starting on September 30, 2004, country-of-origin information on fresh fruits and vegetables, red meats, seafood, and peanuts. However, the consolidated FY2004 appropriation (P.L. 108–199) signed January 23, 2004, delayed this requirement for two years except for seafood. The 1933 Buy American Act requires that a product be manufactured in

2200-480: A short-lived Roman military camp, but the evidence is limited and this topic remains a matter of debate. Archaeologist Lacey Wallace notes "Because no LPRIA settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." The city's Latin name seems to have derived from an originally Brittonic one and significant pre-Roman finds in

2310-469: A single large fire or a series of smaller conflagrations. Fire destroyed substantial areas of the city in the area north of the Thames but does not seem to have damaged many major public buildings. There is very little evidence to suggest similar burning in the adjacent Southwark settlement. The Hadrianic fire (or fires) has normally been assumed to be accidental, but it has also been suggested that it could relate to an episode of political turbulence. During

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2420-482: A smaller shrine for Roman services somewhere within the basilica. The first forum in Londinium seems to have had a full temple, but placed outside just west of the forum. By the turn of the century, Londinium was perhaps as large as 60,000 people and had replaced Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital. A large building discovered near Cannon Street Station has had its foundation dated to this era and

2530-612: A specific mountain in Arabia, and these place-based preferences stimulated trade throughout Europe and the Middle East. In Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum , archaeological evidence also points to evidence of branding and labelling in relatively common use. Wine jars, for example, were stamped with names, such as "Lassius" and "L. Eumachius", probably references to the name of the producer. Carbonized loaves of bread , found at Herculaneum, indicate that some bakers stamped their bread with

2640-670: A structure of two suffixes: -in-jo- . However, the Roman Londinium was not the immediate source of English "London" ( Old English : Lunden ), as i -mutation would have caused the name to have been Lyndon . This suggests an alternative Brittonic form Londonion ; alternatively, the local pronunciation in British Latin may have changed the pronunciation of Londinium to Lundeiniu or Lundein , which would also have avoided i -mutation in Old English. The list of

2750-475: A supply depot and distribution centre like Ostia near Rome. Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. The impressive public buildings from around this period may have been initially constructed in preparation for his visit or during the rebuilding that followed the "Hadrianic Fire". The so-called fire is not mentioned in any historical sources but has been inferred by evidence of large-scale burning identified by archaeologists on several excavation sites around

2860-425: A transformation in country B , which sells the final processed commodity to a country C is considered a sufficient step to label the end product made in B . The International Federation of Film Archives defines the country of origin as the "country of the principal offices of the production company or individual by whom the moving image work was made". No consistent reference or definition exists. Sources include

2970-573: A wide variety of shapes and markings, which provided information for purchasers during exchange. Systematic use of stamped labels dates appears to date from around the fourth century BCE. In a largely pre-literate society, the shape of the amphora and its pictorial markings functioned as a brand, conveying information about the contents, region of origin and even the identity of the producer which were understood to function as signs of product quality. The Romans preferred to purchase goods from specific places, such as oysters from Londinium and cinnamon from

3080-436: Is also known as the "made-in image" and the "nationality bias." Research shows that consumers' broad general perceptions of a country, including of its national characteristics, economic and political background, history, traditions, and representative products, combine to create an overall image or stereotype that is then attached to the products of that country or countries, as occurs for multinational brands. For example,

3190-514: Is assumed to have been the governor's palace. It boasted a garden, pools, and several large halls, some of which were decorated with mosaic floors . It stood on the east bank of the now-covered River Walbrook , near where it joins the Thames. The London Stone may originally have been part of the palace's main entrance. Another site dating to this era is the bathhouse ( thermae ) at Huggin Hill , which remained in use prior to its demolition around

3300-435: Is strongest for durable goods and luxury goods and weakest for "low involvement" product categories such as shampoo and candy. In various studies, it has also been proven that the country-of-origin effect also applies to services. Of particular interest is the country image effect on prices in the sense that price allows for the "monetization" of the country of origin cue. The country image effects on product prices reveal

3410-460: Is uncertain. The present structure of St Peter upon Cornhill was designed by Christopher Wren following the Great Fire in 1666, but it stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium and medieval legends tied it to the city's earliest Christian community. However, the east end of St Peter's and its high altar, is also positioned above the area where some basilicas of the period had

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3520-632: The 28 Cities of Britain included in the 9th-century History of the Britons precisely notes London in Old Welsh as Cair Lundem or Lundein . The pronunciation of Londinium in English is / l ʌ n ˈ d ɪ n i əm / lun- DIN -ee-əm , and its pronunciation in Classical Latin is [ɫɔnˈdɪniʊ̃ː] . The site guarded the Romans' bridgehead on the north bank of

3630-626: The Claudian invasion of Britain , on the current site of the City of London around 47–50 AD, but some defend an older view that the city originated in a defensive enclosure constructed during the Claudian invasion in 43 AD. Its earliest securely-dated structure is a timber drain of 47 AD. It sat at a key ford at the River Thames which turned the city into a road nexus and major port (which

3740-609: The Han dynasty (220 BC-AD 200); brand names and place names were relatively commonplace on goods. Eckhardt and Bengtsson have argued that in the absence of a capitalist system, branding was connected to social systems and cultural contexts; that brand development was a consumer-initiated activity rather than the manufacturer-push normally associated with Western brand management practices. Diana Twede has shown that amphorae used in Mediterranean trade between 1500 and 500 BCE exhibited

3850-730: The Thames and a major road nexus shortly after the invasion. It was centred on Cornhill and the River Walbrook , but extended west to Ludgate Hill and east to Tower Hill . Just prior to the Roman conquest, the area had been contested by the Catuvellauni based to the west and the Trinovantes based to the east; it bordered the realm of the Cantiaci on the south bank of the Thames. The Roman city ultimately covered at least

3960-580: The United States have different definitions for a variety of reasons, including tax treatment, advertising regulations, distribution; even within the European Union, different member states have different legislation. As a result, an individual work can have multiple countries as its "country of origin", and may even have different countries recognized as originating places for the purpose of different legal jurisdictions. Under copyright law in

4070-416: The country or countries of manufacture , production, design, or brand origin where an article or product comes from. For multinational brands, CO may include multiple countries within the value-creation process. There are differing rules of origin under various national laws and international treaties. Country of origin labelling ( COL ) is also known as place-based branding , the made-in image or

4180-465: The " Procurator " or " Publican of the Province of Britain at Londinium", the remains of a governor 's palace and tombstones belonging to the governor's staff have been discovered, and the city was well defended and armed, with a new military camp erected at the beginning of the 2nd century in a fort on the north-western edge of the city, despite being far from any frontier. Despite some corruption to

4290-600: The "nationality bias". In some regions or industries, country of origin labelling may adopt unique local terms such as terroir used to describe wine appellations based on the specific region where grapes are grown and wine manufactured. Place-based branding has a very ancient history. Archaeological evidence points to packaging specifying the place of manufacture dating back to some 4,000 years ago. Over time, informal labels evolved into formal, often regulated labels providing consumers with information about product quality, manufacturer name and place of origin. Country of origin of

4400-459: The 12th century, claiming the city's Christian community was founded in the 2nd century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan , Deruvian , Elvanus, and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium. The location of Londinium's original cathedral

4510-513: The 19th century, Charles Roach Smith estimated its length from the Tower west to Ludgate at about one mile (1.6 km) and its breadth from the northern wall to the bank of the Thames at around half that. In addition to small pedestrian postern gates like the one by Tower Hill , it had four main gates: Bishopsgate and Aldgate in the northeast at the roads to Eboracum ( York ) and to Camulodunum ( Colchester ) and Newgate and Ludgate in

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4620-490: The City of London. The best dating evidence for this event(s) comes from burnt stocks of unsold Terra Sigilatta pottery, which can be dated to c. 120–125. These were found in destroyed warehouse or shop buildings at Regis House and Bucklersbury. Hadrianic fire horizons tend to be dated to around the 120s to 130s, but it is difficult to prove that they are contemporary, and there remains some uncertainty as to whether they indicate

4730-483: The Internet, must disclose whether a product is made in the U.S., imported, or both. The 1994 American Automobile Labeling Act requires that each automobile manufactured on or after October 1, 1994, for sale in the U.S. bear a label disclosing where the car was assembled, the percentage of equipment that originated in the U.S. and Canada, and the country of origin of the engine and transmission. Any representation that

4840-548: The New World. By the late 19th century, European countries began introducing country of origin labelling legislation. In the 20th century, as markets became more global and trade barriers removed, consumers had access to a broader range of goods from almost anywhere in the world. Country of origin is an important consideration in purchase decision-making. The effects of country of origin labeling on consumer purchasing have been extensively studied. The country of origin effect

4950-567: The Roman era, it would make the church contemporaneous to the potential Romano-British church at Silchester , similarly built adjacent to the Roman Basilica and most likely pre- Constantine in age. London certainly had a Christian community in 314 when Bishop Restitutus attended the Council of Arles. This community must have had some meeting place, and apart from St Peter's no other location has yet been proposed, either in antiquity or in

5060-486: The Romans against his tribesmen during that revolt. His will had divided his wealth and lands between Rome and his two daughters, but Roman law forbade female inheritance and it had become common practice to treat allied kingdoms as life estates that were annexed upon the ruler's death, as had occurred in Bithynia and Galatia . Roman financiers including Seneca called in all the king's outstanding loans at once and

5170-431: The Thames at a natural ford near Westminster before being diverted north to the new bridge at London. The Romans enabled the road to cross the marshy terrain without subsidence by laying down substrates of one to three layers of oak logs. This route, now known as Watling Street , passed through the town from the bridgehead in a straight line to reconnect with its northern extension towards Viroconium ( Wroxeter ) and

5280-539: The Thames, especially the Battersea Shield ( Chelsea Bridge , perhaps 4th-century BC) and the Wandsworth Shield (perhaps 1st-century BC), both assumed to be votive offerings deposited a couple of miles upstream of Londinium, suggest the general area was busy and significant. It has been suggested that the area was where several territories intersected. There was probably a ford in that part of

5390-685: The U.S. of more than 50 percent U.S. parts to be considered Made in USA for government procurement purposes. For more information, review the Buy American Act at 41 U.S.C. §§ 10a-10c, the Federal Acquisition Regulations at 48 C.F.R. Part 25, and the Trade Agreements Act at 19 U.S.C. §§ 2501–2582. The 1946 Lanham Act gives any person (such as a competitor) who is damaged by a false designation of origin

5500-590: The United States (mCOOL) rule was defeated by Canada at the WTO in 2014–2015. Companies may indicate the origin of their products with a number of different marketing strategies: When shipping products from one country to another, the products may have to be marked with country of origin, and the country of origin will generally be required to be indicated in the export/import documents and governmental submissions. Country of origin will affect its admissibility,

5610-504: The United States and other signatories of the Berne Convention, "country of origin" is defined in an inclusive way to ensure the protection of intellectual rights of writers and creators. Londinium Londinium , also known as Roman London , was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. Most twenty-first century historians think that it was originally a settlement established shortly after

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5720-479: The Walbrook at the centre of Londinium. Expansion of the flourishing port continued into the 3rd century. Scraps of armour , leather straps, and military stamps on building timbers suggest that the site was constructed by the city's legionaries . Major imports included fine pottery , jewellery and wine . Only two large warehouses are known, implying that Londinium functioned as a bustling trade centre rather than

5830-501: The area of the City of London , whose boundaries are largely defined by its former wall . Londinium's waterfront on the Thames ran from around Ludgate Hill in the west to the present site of the Tower in the east, around 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi). The northern wall reached Bishopsgate and Cripplegate near the former site of the Museum of London , a course now marked by the street "London Wall". Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside

5940-585: The atrium, and bearing labels as follows: Scauras' fish sauce was known to be of very high quality across the Mediterranean and its reputation travelled as far away as modern France. During the Medieval period in Europe, numerous market towns sprang up and competition between them intensified. In response to competitive pressures, towns began investing in developing a reputation for quality produce, efficient market regulation and good amenities for visitors. By

6050-485: The battle shortly thereafter at "a place with narrow jaws, backed by a forest", speaks against the tradition, and no supporting archaeological evidence has been yet discovered. After the sack of the city by Boudica and her defeat, a large military fort covering 15,000 m was built at Plantation Place on Cornhill , with 3m-high banks and enclosed by 3m deep double ditches. It was built as an emergency solution to protect Londinium's important trade and to help reconstruct

6160-414: The bridges near modern Staines . A minor road led southwest to the city's main cemetery and the old routes to the ford at Westminster. Stane Street to Noviomagus ( Chichester ) did not reach Londinium proper but ran from the bridgehead in the southern suburb at Southwark . These roads varied from 12–20 m (39–66 ft) wide. After its reconstruction in the 60s AD, the streets largely adhered to

6270-599: The chartered markets of England and Europe in medieval times were using the regional market's reputation as a sign of produce quality and that this acted as an early form of branding. Following the European age of expansion, goods were imported from afar. Marco Polo , for example, wrote about silk from China and spices from India. Consumers began to associate specific countries with merchandise - calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from

6380-408: The city after this date was covered in dark earth —the by-product of urban household waste, manure, ceramic tile, and non-farm debris of settlement occupation, which accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries. Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. The London Wall survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of

6490-415: The city at this date. Suetonius then returned to the legions' slower infantry, who met and defeated the Iceni army, slaughtering as many as 70,000 men and camp followers. There is a long-standing folklore belief that this battle took place at King's Cross , simply because as a mediaeval village it was known as Battle Bridge. Suetonius's flight back to his men, the razing of Verulamium ( St Albans ), and

6600-519: The city proper. A round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear. Substantial suburbs existed at St Martin-in-the-Fields in Westminster and around the southern end of the Thames bridge in Southwark , where excavations in 1988 and 2021 have revealed an elaborate building with fine mosaics and frescoed walls dating from 72 AD. Inscriptions suggest

6710-407: The city's administrative heart, hearing law cases and seating the town's local senate. It formed the north side of the forum, whose south entrance was located along the north side of the intersection of the present Gracechurch , Lombard , and Fenchurch Streets . Forums elsewhere typically had a civic temple constructed within the enclosed market area; British sites usually did not, instead placing

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6820-471: The city's economy. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion occurred. Londinium remained well populated, as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth which accumulated relatively undisturbed over centuries. Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the London Wall, a defensive ragstone wall around

6930-422: The city. It dominated the town and lay over the main road into Londinium controlling traffic from London Bridge and on the river. Several major building projects at this time such as roads, a new quay and a water lifting machine indicate the army had a key role in reconstruction. The fort was in use for less than 10 years. The city was eventually rebuilt as a planned Roman town , its streets generally adhering to

7040-446: The construction of a riverside wall. It ran roughly along the course of present-day Thames street , which roughly formed the shoreline. Large collapsed sections of this wall were excavated at Blackfriars and the Tower in the 1970s. An inscription found on a third-century stone altar recorded the rebuilding of a temple of Isis by the governor of Britannia Superior – Marcus Martiannius Pulcher . An earlier inscription found on

7150-480: The corners and at points along each wall. Londinium's amphitheatre , constructed in 70, is situated at Guildhall . When the Romans left in the 4th century, the amphitheatre lay derelict for hundreds of years. In the 11th century, the area was reoccupied, and by the 12th century the first Guildhall was built next to it. A temple complex with two Romano-British temples was excavated at Empire Square, Long Lane, Southwark in 2002/2003. A large house there may have been

7260-514: The definitions of artificial fibers. Newly manufactured fibers are updated in their list. The generic name of the fiber is an essential element of the information required by law and a must to be mentioned when labeling products. The name given to a synthetic fibre is based on its chemical composition. Generic names begin with lowercase letters. Examples include olefin, nylon, and acrylic. Country of origin Country of origin ( CO ) represents

7370-552: The earlier one over a period of 30 years from around 90 to 120 into a square measuring 168 m × 167 m (551 ft × 548 ft). Its three-storey basilica was probably visible across the city and was the largest in the empire north of the Alps ; the marketplace rivalled those in Rome and was the largest in the north before Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany) became an imperial capital. The city's temple of Jupiter

7480-415: The early 2nd century, Londinium was at its height, having recovered from the fire and again had between 45,000 and 60,000 inhabitants around 140, with many more stone houses and public buildings erected. Some areas were tightly packed with townhouses ( domus ). The town had piped water and a "fairly-sophisticated" drainage system. The governor's palace was rebuilt, and an expanded forum was built around

7590-423: The early 3rd century. The northwest fort was abandoned and dismantled but archaeological evidence points to renewed construction activity from this period. The London Mithraeum rediscovered in 1954 dates from around 240, when it was erected on the east bank at the head of navigation on the River Walbrook about 200 m (660 ft) from the Thames. From about 255 onwards, raiding by Saxon pirates led to

7700-493: The extent to which consumer perceptions of different country images are reflected in willingness to pay for products associated with different countries. Several studies have shown that consumers tend to have a relative preference for products from their own country or may have a relative preference for or aversion against products that originate from certain countries (so-called affinity and animosity countries). The requirements for Country of Origin markings are complicated by

7810-413: The former associations of the sites had probably died down. There is more evidence that early English Christian churches met in private homes and that some Roman villas also converted rooms to dedicated places of Christian worship. In 1995 a large and ornate 4th-century building on Tower Hill was discovered: built sometime between 350 and 400, it seems to have mimicked St Ambrose 's cathedral in

7920-495: The garrison at Londinium. The Iceni and their allies overwhelmed them and razed the city. The 9th Legion under Quintus Petillius Cerialis , coming south from the Fosse Way , was ambushed and annihilated . The procurator Catus Decianus , meanwhile, escaped with his treasure to Gaul , probably via Londinium. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus had been leading the 14th and 20th Legions in the Roman conquest of Anglesey ; hearing of

8030-424: The imperial capital at Milan on a still-larger scale. It was about 100 m (330 ft) long by about 50 m (160 ft) wide. Excavations by David Sankey of MOLAS established it was constructed out of stone taken from other buildings, including a veneer of black marble. It was probably dedicated to St Paul. From 340 onwards, northern Britain was repeatedly attacked by Picts and Gaels . In 360,

8140-413: The item itself, accompanying material (e.g. scripts, shot lists, production records, publicity material, inventory lists, synopses etc.), the container (if not an integral part of the piece), or other sources (standard and special moving image reference tools). In law, definitions of "country of origin" and related terms are defined differently in different jurisdictions. The European Union , Canada , and

8250-566: The lack of written and inscribed sources. (It was customary elsewhere to name roads after the emperor during whose principate they were completed, but the number and vicinity of routes completed during the time of Claudius would seem to have made this impractical in Britain's case.) The road from the Kentish ports of Rutupiae ( Richborough ), Dubris ( Dover ), and Lemanis ( Lympne ) via Durovernum ( Canterbury ) seems to have first crossed

8360-479: The landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The wall was originally about 5 km (3 mi) long, 6 m (20 ft) high, and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) thick. Its dry moat ( fossa ) was about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep and 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) wide. In

8470-404: The legionary base at Deva Victrix ( Chester ). The Great Road ran northeast across Old Ford to Camulodunum ( Colchester ) and thence northeast along Pye Road to Venta Icenorum ( Caistor St Edmund ). Ermine Street ran north from the city to Lindum ( Lincoln ) and Eboracum ( York ). The Devil's Highway connected Londinium to Calleva ( Silchester ) and its roads to points west over

8580-475: The main Roman road excavated at No 1 Poultry has been dated by dendrochronology to 47 AD. Following its foundation in the mid-1st century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, about 350 acres (1.4 km ) or roughly the area of present-day Hyde Park . Archaeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London

8690-477: The manufacturers and marketers of the textile products. Congress 85th passed this legislation on 2 September 1958, but it came into force in 1960. The act has a number of sections that set out regulations for different segments. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act provides a set of terminology that defines "what is to be called what" while communicating in the textile product trade. The law has an important role to play in providing 'generic names' and

8800-473: The manufacturing process (for example, the yarn and fiber) came from. Textile products that are imported must be labeled as required by the Customs Service. A textile or wool product partially manufactured in the U.S. and partially manufactured in another country must be labeled to show both foreign and domestic processing. On a garment with a neck, the country of origin must be disclosed on the front of

8910-444: The modern era. There is, however, some conflicting evidence to the theory that St Peter's was deliberately cited above a pagan shrine room. Current research suggests it was very rare for early English Christian churches to be founded in pagan temples and that when temples were turned into churches, this occurred later, in the late 6th century and onwards. This was also true elsewhere in the Roman Empire; for example in Rome. By this time

9020-401: The modesty of Londinium's first forum may have reflected its early elevation to city ( municipium ) status or may have reflected an administrative concession to a low-ranking but major Romano-British settlement. It had almost certainly been granted colony ( colonia ) status prior to the complete replanning of the city's street plan attending the erection of the great second forum around

9130-403: The north and another to the west – but these were not along major roads. Aldersgate was eventually added, perhaps to replace the west gate of the fort. (The names of all these gates are medieval, as they continued to be occasionally refurbished and replaced until their demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries to permit widening the roads.) The wall initially left the riverbank undefended: this

9240-553: The old City of London. The etymology of the name Londinium is unknown. Following Geoffrey of Monmouth 's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain , it was long published as derived from an eponymous founder named Lud , son of Heli . There is no evidence such a figure existed. Instead, the Latin name was probably based on a native Brittonic place name reconstructed as * Londinion . Morphologically, this points to

9350-435: The others. The governor's palace and old large forum seem to have fallen out of use around 300, but in general the first half of the 4th century appears to have been a prosperous time for Britain, for the villa estates surrounding London appear to have flourished during this period. The London Mithraeum was rededicated, probably to Bacchus . A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyne of Furness in

9460-456: The producer's name. Umbricius Scauras, a manufacturer of fish sauce (also known as garum ) in Pompeii c.  35 C.E. , was branding his amphora which travelled across the entire Mediterranean. Mosaic patterns in the atrium of his house were decorated with images of amphora bearing his personal brand and quality claims. The mosaic comprises four different amphora, one at each corner of

9570-531: The producer's personal identity thus providing information about the product and its quality. For instance, an object found in a royal burial tomb in Abydos (southern Egypt) and dating to around 3,000 B.C.E., carries brand elements that would be very familiar to modern consumers. Inscriptions on the surface denote a specific place of manufacture, "finest oil of Tjehenu", a region in modern-day Libya . In China, place-names appear to have developed independently during

9680-413: The provincial procurator confiscated the property of both the king and his nobles. Tacitus records that when the king's wife Boudica objected, the Romans flogged her, raped her two daughters, and enslaved their nobles and kinsmen. Boudica then led a failed revolt against Roman rule. Two hundred ill-equipped men were sent to defend the provincial capital and Roman colony at Camulodunum, probably from

9790-520: The rate of duty, its entitlement to special duty or trade preference programs, antidumping , and government procurement . Today, many products are an outcome of a large number of parts and pieces that come from many different countries, and that may then be assembled together in a third country. In these cases, it is hard to know exactly what is the country of origin, and different rules apply as to how to determine their "correct" country of origin. Generally, articles only change their country of origin if

9900-457: The rebellion of the Iceni under their queen, Boudica , compelled the Roman forces to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the defeat of Boudica by the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus a military installation was established, and the city was rebuilt. It had probably largely recovered within about a decade. During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming Britannia's largest city, and it

10010-401: The right to sue the party making the false claim. The 1958 Textile Fiber Products Identification Act , approved on 2 September 1958, and the 1939 Wool Products Labeling Act require a Made in USA label on clothing and other textile or wool household products if the final product is manufactured in the U.S. of fabric that is manufactured in the U.S., regardless of where materials earlier in

10120-490: The rising, he immediately returned along Watling Street with the legions' cavalry. An early historical record of London appears in Tacitus's account of his actions upon arriving and finding the state of the 9th Legion: At first, [Paulinus] hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there. Eventually, his numerical inferiority—and the price only too clearly paid by the divisional commander 's rashness—decided him to sacrifice

10230-529: The river; other Roman and Celtic finds suggest this was perhaps where the opposed crossing Julius Caesar describes in 54 BC took place. Londinium expanded around the point on the River Thames narrow enough for the construction of a Roman bridge but still deep enough to handle the era's seagoing ships. Its placement on the Tideway permitted easier access for ships sailing upstream. The remains of

10340-406: The single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure. The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy. Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath

10450-474: The survivors. The event was commemorated by the golden Arras Medallion , Chlorus on one side and on the other a woman kneeling at the city wall welcoming a mounted Roman soldier. Another memorial to the return of Londinium to Roman control was the construction of a new set of forum baths around 300. The structures were modest enough that they were previously identified as parts of the forum and market but are now recognised as elaborate and luxurious baths including

10560-404: The text, the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles indicates that either Restitutus or Adelphius came from Londinium. The city seems to have been the seat of the diocesan vicar and one of the provincial governors following the Diocletian Reforms around 300; it had been renamed Augusta —a common epithet of provincial capitals—by 368. Unlike many cities of Roman Britain, Londinium

10670-480: The thirteenth century, English counties with important textile industries were investing in purpose built halls for the sale of cloth. London's Blackwell Hall became a centre for cloth, Bristol became associated with a particular type of cloth known as Bristol red , Stroud was known for producing fine woollen cloth, the town of Worsted became synonymous with a type of yarn; Banbury and Essex were strongly associated with cheeses. Casson and Lee have argued that

10780-595: The various designations which may be required such as "Made in X", "Product of X", "Manufactured in X" etc. They also vary by country of import and export. For example: Section 304 of the Tariff Act of 1930 as amended ( 19 U.S.C.   § 1304 ) requires most imports, including many food items, to bear labels informing the ultimate purchaser of their country of origin. Meats, produce, and several other raw agricultural products generally were exempt. The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107–171, Sec. 10816), however, contains

10890-613: The wall at the City Wall at Vine Street Museum opened to the public. Septimius Severus defeated Albinus in 197 and shortly afterwards divided the province of Britain into Upper and Lower halves, with the former controlled by a new governor in Eboracum ( York ). Despite the smaller administrative area, the economic stimulus provided by the wall and by Septimius Severus's campaigns in Caledonia somewhat revived London's fortunes in

11000-421: The west along at the road that divided for travel to Viroconium ( Wroxeter ) and to Calleva ( Silchester ) and at another road that ran along the Thames to the city's main cemetery and the old ford at Westminster . The wall partially utilised the army's existing fort, strengthening its outer wall with a second course of stone to match the rest of the course. The fort had two gates of its own – Cripplegate to

11110-466: The work or material added to an article in the second country constitutes a substantial transformation, or, the article changes its name, tariff code, character or use (for instance from wheel to car). Value added in the second country may also be an issue. In principle, the substantial transformation of a product is intended as a change in the harmonized system coding. For example, a rough commodity sold from country A to country B , than subjected of

11220-459: The year 120. By this time, Britain's provincial administration had also almost certainly been moved to Londinium from Camulodunum (now Colchester in Essex ). The precise date of this change is unknown, and no surviving source explicitly states that Londinium was "the capital of Britain," but there are several strong indications of this status: 2nd-century roofing tiles have been found marked by

11330-485: The year 200. Brothels were legal but taxed. A large port complex on both banks near London Bridge was discovered during the 1980s. The bulk of the Roman port was quickly rebuilt after Boudicca's rebellion when the waterfront was extended with gravel to permit a sturdy wharf to be built perpendicular to the shore. The port was built in four sections, starting upstream of the London Bridge and working down towards

11440-444: Was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the empire and that local markets existed for such objects. Of the fifteen British routes recorded in the 2nd- or 3rd-century Antonine Itinerary , seven ran to or from Londinium. Most of these were constructed near the time of the city's foundation around 47 AD. The roads are now known by Welsh or Old English names, as their original Roman names have been lost because of

11550-408: Was built between 49 and 52 AD ), serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century. Following the foundation of the town in the mid-1st century, early Londinium occupied the relatively small area of 1.4 km (0.5 sq mi), roughly half the area of the modern City of London and equivalent to the size of present-day Hyde Park . In 60 or 61 AD,

11660-484: Was built next to the waterfront and had its own bath. Londinium seems to have shrunk in both size and population in the second half of the 2nd century. The cause is uncertain, but plague is considered likely, as the Antonine Plague is recorded decimating other areas of Western Europe between 165 and 190. The end of imperial expansion in Britain after Hadrian's decision to build his wall may have also damaged

11770-462: Was corrected in the 3rd century. Although the reason for the wall's construction is unknown, some historians have connected it with the Pictish invasion of the 180s. Others link it with Clodius Albinus , the British governor who attempted to usurp Septimius Severus in the 190s. The wall survived another 1,600 years and still roughly defines the City of London's perimeter. In 2023 a section of

11880-409: Was not placed on the site of a native settlement or oppidum . Prior to the arrival of the Roman legions , the area was almost certainly lightly rolling open countryside traversed by numerous streams now underground . Ptolemy lists it as one of the cities of the Cantiaci , but Durovernum (Roman Canterbury ) was their tribal capital ( civitas ). It is possible that the town was preceded by

11990-453: Was provided with large public buildings such as a forum and amphitheatre. By the 2nd century, Londinium had grown to perhaps 30,000 or 60,000 people, almost certainly replacing Camulodunum ( Colchester ) as the provincial capital, and by the mid-2nd century Londinium was at its height. Its forum basilica was one of the largest structures north of the Alps when Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. Excavations have discovered evidence of

12100-402: Was renovated, public and private bathhouses were erected, and a fort ( arx ) was erected around 120 that maintained the city garrison northwest of town. The fort was square (with rounded corners) measuring more than 200 m × 200 m (660 ft × 660 ft) and covering more than 12 acres (4.9 ha). Each side had a central gatehouse, and stone towers were erected at

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