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93-508: Carolingian minuscule was the direct ancestor of blackletter. Blackletter developed from Carolingian as an increasingly literate 12th-century Europe required new books in many different subjects. New universities were founded, each producing books for business , law , grammar , history and other pursuits, not solely religious works, for which earlier scripts typically had been used. These books needed to be produced quickly to keep up with demand. Labor-intensive Carolingian, though legible,

186-426: A cursive form of handwriting was used in writing on papyrus . It employed slanted and partly connected letter forms as well as many ligatures . Some features of this handwriting were later adopted into Greek minuscule, the dominant form of handwriting in the medieval and early modern era. In the 19th and 20th centuries, an entirely new form of cursive Greek, more similar to contemporary Western European cursive scripts,

279-636: A fully joined, cursive hand. Eighty-seven years later, in the middle of the 19th century, Abraham Lincoln drafted the Gettysburg Address in a cursive hand that would not look out of place today. Not all such cursive, then or now, joined all of the letters within a word. In both the British Empire and the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, before the typewriter, professionals used cursive for their correspondence. This

372-422: A highly legible script which the humanists called littera antiqua ("the ancient letter"), wrongly believing that it was the script used by the ancient Romans . It was in fact invented in the reign of Charlemagne , although only used significantly after that era, and actually formed the basis for the later development of blackletter. Blackletter script should not be confused with either the ancient alphabet of

465-509: A mix of upper and lower case for subtitles, and lower case for the body of a text. Although Charlemagne was never fully literate, he understood the value of literacy and a uniform script in running his empire. Charlemagne sent for the English scholar Alcuin of York to run his palace school and scriptorium at his capital, Aachen . Efforts to supplant Gallo-Roman and Germanic scripts had been under way before Alcuin arrived at Aachen, where he

558-485: A need for a more rapid writing technology led to the development of this script. The rounded forms of Carolingian became angular flicks of the quill, and both letters and words became compressed. Early Gothic is characterized by a number of factors. There are no capital letters for this script. Instead Roman Rustic , Roman Square or Uncial letters were used. Versals were most often Lombardic Capitals usually painted in bright colors. Other features are split ascenders,

651-648: A particular way. Once pupils have learnt how to clearly form single letters, they are taught how single letters can be joined to form a flowing script. Characteristics of cursive and continuous cursive scripts: Whether cursive or continuous cursive is to be favoured remains a subject of debate. While many schools in the United Kingdom are opting to teach continuous cursive throughout the year groups, often starting in Reception , critics have argued that conjoined writing styles leave many children struggling with

744-659: A series of books and had a typeface created specifically for it. In the 19th century, the use of antiqua alongside Fraktur increased, leading to an Antiqua-Fraktur dispute which lasted until the Nazis mandated an end to the use of Fraktur in 1941. By then, Fraktur had been the most common and well-known blackletter style in Germany for a long time, and as a result all kinds of blackletter (including Schwabacher, Textualis, and so on) tend to be called Fraktur in German. German cursiva

837-675: A short time in the early 9th century, is usually larger, broader, and very vertical in comparison to the slanting Rhaetian type. It was developed by the monk Wolfcoz I at the Abbey of Saint Gall . In the Holy Roman Empire , Carolingian script flourished in Salzburg , Austria , as well as in Fulda , Mainz , and Würzburg , all of which were major centers of the script. German minuscule tends to be oval-shaped, very slender, and slanted to

930-584: A simplified form of non-cursive handwriting adopted by Hamburg schools. The Russian Cursive Cyrillic alphabet is used (instead of the block letters ) when handwriting the modern Russian language . While several letters resemble Latin counterparts, many of them represent different sounds. Most handwritten Russian, especially personal letters and schoolwork, uses the cursive Russian (Cyrillic) alphabet although use of block letters in private writing has been rising. Most children in Russian schools are taught in

1023-412: A storied 'a', both the standard 'r' and a half 'r' 〈ꝛ〉 used after letters with bowls. The long 's' 〈ſ〉 is used primarily, but there are examples of the short 's' in some manuscripts. Punctuation is limited, usually only full stops and commas, and they are usually rendered at the mid-line. As the script continued to evolve and become ever more angular, vertical and compressed, it began its transition to

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1116-891: A survey of 200 teachers of first through third grades in all 50 American states, 90 percent of respondents said their schools required the teaching of cursive, but a nationwide survey in 2008 found elementary school teachers lacking formal training in teaching handwriting; only 12 percent reported having taken a course in how to teach it. In 2012, the American states of Indiana and Hawaii announced that their schools would no longer be required to teach cursive (but will still be permitted to), and instead will be required to teach "keyboard proficiency". Nationwide Common Core State Standards (which do not include instruction in cursive) were proposed in 2009 and had been adopted by 44 states as of July 2011 - all of which have debated whether to augment them with cursive. Many historical documents, such as

1209-468: A wave of state legislation between 2013 and 2023 that requires the incorporation of cursive handwriting into elementary education. Other states such as Idaho , Kansas , Massachusetts , North Carolina , South Carolina , New Jersey , and Tennessee had already mandated cursive in schools as a part of the Back to Basics program designed to maintain the integrity of cursive handwriting. Cursive instruction

1302-429: A word are connected, sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. Cursive is a style of penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in a conjoined , or flowing, manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster. This writing style is distinct from "print-script" using block letters , in which the letters of a word are unconnected. Not all cursive copybooks join all letters; formal cursive

1395-560: Is a script which developed as a calligraphic standard in the medieval European period so that the Latin alphabet of Jerome 's Vulgate Bible could be easily recognized by the literate class from one region to another. It is thought to have originated before 778 CE at the scriptorium of the Benedictine monks of Corbie Abbey , about 150 kilometres (95 miles) north of Paris, and then developed by Alcuin of York for wide use in

1488-409: Is a common feature in rotunda , but breaking is not. Italian Rotunda also is characterized by unique abbreviations, such as ⟨q⟩ with a line beneath the bow signifying qui , and unusual spellings, such as ⟨x⟩ for ⟨s⟩ ( milex rather than miles ). Italian cursive developed in the 13th century from scripts used by notaries. The more calligraphic form

1581-433: Is a hybrid form of the script. It is a mixture of textualis and cursiva , developed in the early 15th century. From textualis , it borrowed vertical ascenders, while from cursiva , it borrowed long ⟨f⟩ and ⟨ſ⟩ , single-looped ⟨a⟩ , and ⟨g⟩ with an open descender (similar to Carolingian forms). The Donatus-Kalender (also known as Donatus-und-Kalender or D-K)

1674-570: Is a style of typeface , which approximates this historical hand, eliminating the nuances of size of capitals, long descenders, and so on. Cursive Cursive (also known as joined-up writing ) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters . It varies in functionality and modern-day usage across languages and regions; being used both publicly in artistic and formal documents as well as in private communication. Formal cursive

1767-428: Is also alien to blackletter typefaces. Words from other languages, especially from Romance languages including Latin, are usually typeset in antiqua instead of blackletter. The practice of setting foreign words or phrases in antiqua within a blackletter text does not apply to loanwords that have been incorporated into the language. English blackletter developed from the form of Carolingian minuscule used there after

1860-429: Is customarily divided into old (or ancient) cursive, and new cursive. Old Roman cursive, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet , and even by emperors issuing commands. New Roman, also called minuscule cursive or later cursive, developed from old cursive. It

1953-478: Is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. In the Arabic , Syriac , Latin , and Cyrillic alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected (while others must not), sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. In Hebrew cursive and Roman cursive , the letters are not connected. In Maharashtra , there was a cursive alphabet, known as the 'Modi' script, used to write

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2046-424: Is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. The writing style can be further divided as "looped", " italic ", or "connected". The cursive method is used with many alphabets due to infrequent pen lifting and beliefs that it increases writing speed. Despite this belief, more elaborate or ornamental styles of writing can be slower to reproduce. In some alphabets, many or all letters in

2139-422: Is generally what people refer to when they say "cursive" in the context of English. Cursive italic penmanship—derived from chancery cursive —uses non-looped joins, and not all letters are joined. In italic cursive, there are no joins from g, j, q, or y, and a few other joins are discouraged. Italic penmanship became popular in the 15th-century Italian Renaissance. The term "italic" as it relates to handwriting

2232-522: Is known as minuscola cancelleresca italiana (or simply cancelleresca , chancery hand ), which developed into a book hand , a script used for writing books rather than charters, in the 14th century. Cancelleresca influenced the development of bastarda in France and secretary hand in England. A textualis form, commonly known as Gotisch or "Gothic script", was used for general publications from

2325-551: Is more difficult than writing with curved lines and children would benefit from learning cursive first. Students with dyslexia , who have difficulty learning to read because their brains have difficulty associating sounds and letter combinations efficiently, have found that cursive can help them with the decoding process because it integrates hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills and other brain and memory functions. However, students with dysgraphia may be badly served, or even substantially hindered, by demands for cursive. Up to

2418-651: Is not to be confused with italic typed letters. Many, but not all, letters in the handwriting of the Renaissance were joined, as most are today in cursive italic. The origins of the cursive method are associated with the practical advantages of writing speed and infrequent pen-lifting to accommodate the limitations of the quill . Quills are fragile, easily broken, and will spatter unless used properly. They also run out of ink faster than most contemporary writing utensils. Steel dip pens followed quills; they were sturdier, but still had some limitations. The individuality of

2511-490: Is required by grade 5 in Illinois, starting with the 2018–2019 school year. Some argue that cursive is not worth teaching in schools and "in the 1960s cursive was implemented because of preference and not an educational basis; Hawaii and Indiana have replaced cursive instruction with 'keyboard proficiency' and 44 other states are currently weighing similar measures." Maria Montessori argued that writing with straight lines

2604-418: Is similar to the cursive scripts in other areas, but forms of ⟨a⟩ , ⟨s⟩ and other letters are more varied; here too, the letter ⟨w⟩ is often used. A hybrida form, which was basically cursiva with fewer looped letters and with square proportions similar to textualis , was used in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 18th century, the pointed quill (in contrast to

2697-512: Is the name for the metal type design that Gutenberg used in his earliest surviving printed works, dating from the early 1450s. The name is taken from two works: the Ars grammatica of Aelius Donatus , a Latin grammar, and the Kalender (calendar). It is a form of textura. While an antiqua typeface is usually a compound of roman types and italic types since the 16th-century French typographers,

2790-613: The Führer , I make the following announcement: It is wrong to regard or to describe the so-called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so-called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced. Today

2883-512: The Führer , talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools. Carolingian minuscule Carolingian minuscule or Caroline minuscule

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2976-411: The et ( & ), æ , rt , st , and ct ligatures are common. The letter d often appears in an uncial form with an ascender slanting to the left, but the letter g is essentially the same as the modern minuscule letter, rather than the previously common uncial ᵹ . Ascenders are usually "clubbed" – they become thicker near the top. The early period of the script, during Charlemagne's reign in

3069-621: The Carolingian Renaissance sought out and copied in the new legible standardized hand many Roman texts that had been wholly forgotten. Most of contemporary knowledge of classical literature derives from copies made in the scriptoria of Charlemagne . Over 7000 manuscripts written in Carolingian script survive from the 8th and 9th centuries alone. Though the Carolingian minuscule was superseded by Gothic blackletter hands, in retrospect, it seemed so thoroughly 'classic' to

3162-498: The Carolingian Renaissance . Alcuin himself still wrote in a script which was a precursor to the Carolingian minuscule, which slowly developed over three centuries. He was most likely responsible for copying and preserving the manuscripts and upkeep of the script. It was used in the Holy Roman Empire between approximately 800 and 1200. Codices , pagan and Christian texts, and educational material were written in Carolingian minuscule. After blackletter developed out of it,

3255-535: The Letterlike Symbols range (plus long s at U+017F). Fonts supporting the range include Code2001 , Cambria Math , Noto Sans Math, and Quivira (textura style). This block of characters is intended for use in setting mathematical texts, which contrast blackletter characters with other letter styles. Outside of mathematics, the character set has seen some limited decorative use, but it lacks punctuation and other characters necessary for running text, and

3348-568: The Marathi language . Ligature is writing the letters of words with lines connecting the letters so that one does not have to pick up the pen or pencil between letters. Commonly some of the letters are written in a looped manner to facilitate the connections. In common printed Greek texts, the modern small letter fonts are called "cursive" (as opposed to uncial ) though the letters do not connect. In looped cursive penmanship, some ascenders and descenders have loops which provide for joins. This

3441-716: The Norman Conquest , sometimes called "Romanesque minuscule". Textualis forms developed after 1190 and were used most often until approximately 1300, after which it became used mainly for de luxe manuscripts. English forms of blackletter have been studied extensively and may be divided into many categories. Textualis formata ("Old English" or "blackletter"), textualis prescissa (or textualis sine pedibus , as it generally lacks feet on its minims), textualis quadrata (or psalterialis ) and semi-quadrata , and textualis rotunda are various forms of high-grade formata styles of blackletter. The University of Oxford borrowed

3534-753: The Roman Curia ; nevertheless the Romanesca type was developed in Rome after the 10th century. The script was not taken up in England and Ireland until ecclesiastic reforms in the middle of the 10th century; in Spain a traditionalist Visigothic hand survived; and in southern Italy a ' Beneventan minuscule ' survived in the lands of the Lombard duchy of Benevento through the 13th century, although Romanesca eventually also appeared in southern Italy. Scholars during

3627-485: The University of Paris , littera parisiensis , which also is small in size and designed to be written quickly, not calligraphically. French cursiva was used from the 13th to the 16th century, when it became highly looped, messy, and slanted. Bastarda , the "hybrid" mixture of cursiva and textualis , developed in the 15th century and was used for vernacular texts as well as Latin. A more angular form of bastarda

3720-416: The humanists of the early Renaissance that they took these old Carolingian manuscripts to be ancient Roman originals, and used them as bases for their Renaissance hand, the " humanist minuscule ". From there the script passed to the 15th- and 16th-century printers of books, such as Aldus Manutius of Venice. In this way it forms the basis of our modern lowercase typefaces. Indeed, 'Carolingian minuscule'

3813-535: The littera parisiensis in the 13th century and early 14th century, and the littera oxoniensis form is almost indistinguishable from its Parisian counterpart; however, there are a few differences, such as the round final ⟨s⟩ forms, resembling the number ⟨8⟩ , rather than the long ⟨s⟩ used in the final position in the Paris script. Printers of the late 15th and early 16th centuries commonly used blackletter typefaces, but under

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3906-459: The standard Bengali alphabet as it is free hand writing, where sometimes the alphabets are complex and appear different from the standard handwriting. Modi is a cursive script used to write Marathi that is thought to be derived from the Devanagari script. It was used alongside Devanagari until the 20th century as a shorthand script for quick writing in business and administration. Due to

3999-447: The textura hands. Textualis , also known as textura or "Gothic bookhand", was the most calligraphic form of blackletter, and today is the form most associated with "Gothic". Johannes Gutenberg carved a textualis typeface—including a large number of ligatures and common abbreviations—when he printed his 42-line Bible . However, textualis was rarely used for typefaces after this. According to Dutch scholar Gerard Lieftinck,

4092-479: The " long s " ſ and u ), and ascenders, after thickening at the top, were finished with a three-cornered wedge. The script began to evolve slowly after the 9th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries, ligatures were rare and ascenders began to slant to the right and were finished with a fork. The letter w also began to appear. By the 12th century, Carolingian letters had become more angular and were written closer together, less legibly than in previous centuries; at

4185-443: The 13th century, and soon replaced littera oxoniensis as the standard university script. The earliest cursive blackletter form is Anglicana , a very round and looped script, which also had a squarer and angular counterpart, Anglicana formata . The formata form was used until the 15th century and also was used to write vernacular texts. An Anglicana bastarda form developed from a mixture of Anglicana and textualis , but by

4278-501: The 14th century as a simplified form of textualis , with influence from the form of textualis as used for writing charters . Cursiva developed partly because of the introduction of paper , which was smoother than parchment . It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script. In cursiva , descenders are more frequent, especially in the letters ⟨f⟩ and ⟨s⟩ , and ascenders are curved and looped rather than vertical (seen especially in

4371-578: The 16th century, the principal cursive blackletter used in England was the Secretary script , which originated in Italy and came to England by way of France. Secretary script has a somewhat haphazard appearance and its forms of the letters ⟨a⟩ , ⟨g⟩ , ⟨r⟩ , and ⟨s⟩ are unique, unlike any forms in any other English script. The legacy of these English cursive Gothic forms survived in common use as late as

4464-531: The 17th century, but its use was neither uniform, nor standardized either in England itself or elsewhere in the British Empire . In the English colonies of the early 17th century, most of the letters are clearly separated in the handwriting of William Bradford , though a few were joined as in a cursive hand. In England itself, Edward Cocker had begun to introduce a version of the French ronde style, which

4557-417: The 18th century in the court hand used for some legal records. French textualis was tall and narrow compared to other national forms, and was most fully developed in the late 13th century in Paris. In the 13th century there also was an extremely small version of textualis used to write miniature Bibles, known as "pearl script". Another form of French textualis in this century was the script developed at

4650-484: The 19th century, Kurrent (also known as German cursive ) was used in German-language longhand. Kurrent was not used exclusively, but rather in parallel to modern cursive (which is the same as English cursive). Writers used both cursive styles: location, contents and context of the text determined which style to use. A successor of Kurrent , Sütterlin , was widely used in the period 1911–1941 until

4743-500: The 21st century, some of the surviving cursive writing styles are Spencerian , Palmer Method , D'Nealian , and Zaner-Bloser script. One of the earliest forms of new technology that caused the decline of handwriting was the invention of the ballpoint pen , patented in 1888 by John Loud. Two brothers, László and György Bíró, further developed the ballpoint pen by changing the design and using different ink that dried quickly. Unlike older pen designs, this new invention guaranteed that

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4836-502: The Carolingian minuscule became obsolete, until the 14th century Italian Renaissance , when the humanist minuscule script was also developed from it. By this latter line the Carolingian minuscule is a direct ancestor of most modern-day Latin letter scripts and typefaces. The script is derived from Roman half uncial and the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. The strong influence of Irish literati on

4929-485: The Gothic language nor with the sans-serif typefaces that are also sometimes called Gothic . It is difficult to be specific about the time at which Early Gothic (or Proto Gothic ) was born and later died, because it was an interim script spanning Carolingian Minuscule and the Gothic textura scripts. It can generally be said that it was used in the 11th and 12th centuries. As universities began to populate Europe,

5022-790: The Nazi Party banned it and its printed equivalent Fraktur . German speakers brought up with Sütterlin continued to use it well into the post-war period. Today, three different styles of cursive writing are taught in German schools, the Lateinische Ausgangsschrift (introduced in 1953), the Schulausgangsschrift (1968), and the Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift (1969). The German National Primary Schoolteachers' Union has proposed replacing all three with Grundschrift ,

5115-562: The Unicode standard for setting non-mathematical material in blackletter is to use ordinary Latin code points with a dedicated blackletter font. Mathematical Fraktur: Mathematical Bold Fraktur: Note: (The above may not render fully in all web browsers.) The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur. "For general attention, on behalf of

5208-484: The United States Constitution, are written in cursive—some argue the inability to read cursive therefore precludes one from being able to fully appreciate such documents in their original format. Despite the decline in the day-to-day use of cursive, it is being reintroduced to the curriculum of some schools in the United States . California passed cursive handwriting legislation in 2023, adding to

5301-400: The blackletter typefaces never developed a similar distinction. Instead, they use letterspacing (German Sperrung ) for emphasis. When blackletter is letterspaced, ligatures like ⟨ch⟩ , ⟨ck⟩ , ⟨tz⟩ or ⟨ſt⟩ remain together without additional letterspacing ( ⟨ſt⟩ is dissolved, though). The use of bold text for emphasis

5394-579: The common people, such as ballads , chivalric romances, and jokebooks. Chaucer 's works had been printed in blackletter in the late 15th century, but were subsequently more usually printed in Roman type. Horace Walpole wrote in 1781 that "I am too, though a Goth, so modern a Goth that I hate the black letter, and I love Chaucer better in Dryden and Baskerville than in his own language and dress." English cursiva ( Cursiva Anglicana ) began to be used in

5487-708: The fifteenth century on, but became restricted to official documents and religious publications during the seventeenth century. Its use persisted into the nineteenth century for editions of the State Translation of the Bible , but otherwise became obsolete. Mathematical blackletter characters are separately encoded in Unicode in the Mathematical alphanumeric symbols range at U+1D504-1D537 and U+1D56C-1D59F (bold), except for individual letters already encoded in

5580-577: The first Roman-script record of any Slavic language , are written in Carolingian minuscule. In Switzerland , Carolingian was used in the Rhaetian and Alemannic minuscule types. Manuscripts written in Rhaetian minuscule tend to have slender letters, resembling Insular script, with the letters ⟨a⟩ and ⟨t⟩ , and ligatures such as ⟨ri⟩ , showing similar to Visigothic and Beneventan. Alemannic minuscule , used for

5673-566: The first grade how to write using this Russian script. Cursive forms of Chinese characters are used in calligraphy; "running script" is the semi-cursive form and " rough script " (mistakenly called "grass script" due to literal misinterpretation) is the cursive. The running aspect of this script has more to do with the formation and connectedness of strokes within an individual character than with connections between characters as in Western connected cursive. The latter are rare in hanzi and in

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5766-603: The high level of gross and fine motor coordination required. In the American colonies, on the eve of their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain , it is notable that Thomas Jefferson joined most, but not all the letters when drafting the United States Declaration of Independence . However, a few days later, Timothy Matlack professionally re-wrote the presentation copy of the Declaration in

5859-459: The influence of Renaissance tastes, Roman typefaces grew in popularity, until by about 1590 most presses had converted to them. However, blackletter was considered to be more readily legible (especially by the less literate classes of society), and it therefore remained in use throughout the 17th century and into the 18th for documents intended for widespread dissemination, such as proclamations and Acts of Parliament , and for literature aimed at

5952-462: The ink would not smudge and did not require such careful penmanship. After World War II, the ballpoint pen was mass-produced and sold cheaply, changing how people wrote. Over time, the emphasis on using cursive declined slowly, and was later impacted by other technologies such as the phone, computer, and keyboard. Cursive has been in decline throughout the 21st century because it is no longer perceived as necessary. The Fairfax Education Association,

6045-522: The largest teachers' union in Fairfax County, Virginia, has called cursive a "dying art". On the 2006 SAT , an American university matriculation exam, only 15 percent of the students wrote their essay answers in cursive. However, students might be discouraged from using cursive on standardized tests because they will receive lower marks if their answers are hard to read, and some graders may have difficulties reading cursive. Nevertheless, in 2007,

6138-589: The late 8th century and early 9th, still has widely varying letter forms in different regions. The uncial form of the letter a , similar to a double c ( cc ), is still used in manuscripts from this period. There is also use of punctuation such as the question mark , as in Beneventan script of the same period. The script flourished during the 9th century, when regional hands developed into an international standard, with less variation of letter forms. Modern glyphs , such as s and v , began to appear (as opposed to

6231-426: The letter ⟨d⟩ ). The letters ⟨a⟩ , ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩ (at the end of a word) are very similar to their Carolingian forms. However, not all of these features are found in every example of cursiva , which makes it difficult to determine whether or not a script may be called cursiva at all. Lieftinck also divided cursiva into three styles: littera cursiva formata

6324-463: The letters; however, as he did not begin his efforts in due season, but late in life, they met with ill success. This new script was significantly more legible than the scripts used by Romans or that of the script earlier in the Middle Ages, and offered new features such as word spacing, more punctuation, an introduction of lower-case letters, and conventions such as usage of upper-case for titles,

6417-609: The longest. Schwabacher typefaces dominated in Germany from about 1480 to 1530, and the style continued in use occasionally until the 20th century. Most importantly, all of the works of Martin Luther , leading to the Protestant Reformation , as well as the Apocalypse of Albrecht Dürer (1498), used this typeface. Johann Bämler , a printer from Augsburg , probably first used it as early as 1472. The origins of

6510-497: The mid-16th century. Its use was so common that often any blackletter form is called Fraktur in Germany. Characteristics of Fraktur are: Here is the entire alphabet in Fraktur (minus the long s and the sharp s ⟨ß⟩ ), using the AMS Euler Fraktur typeface: Cursiva refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing , there is no real standard form. It developed in

6603-520: The middle of the 20th century approached. After the 1960s, a movement originally begun by Paul Standard in the 1930s to replace looped cursive with cursive italic penmanship resurfaced. It was motivated by the claim that cursive instruction was more difficult than it needed to be; that conventional (looped) cursive was unnecessary, and it was easier to write in cursive italic. Because of this, various new forms of cursive italic appeared, including Getty-Dubay Italic , and Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting . In

6696-533: The name remain unclear; some assume that a typeface-carver from the village of Schwabach—one who worked externally and who thus became known as the Schwabacher —designed the typeface. German-made Textualis type is usually very heavy and angular, and there are few characteristic features that are common to all occurrences of the script. One common feature is the use of the letter ⟨w⟩ for Latin ⟨vu⟩ or ⟨uu⟩ . Textualis

6789-478: The next minimises lifting the pen from the paper for dipping in ink. Some characters are "broken" versions of their Devanagari counterparts. Many characters are more circular in shape. The long 'ī' (ई) and short 'u' (उ) are used in place of the short 'i' (इ) and long 'ū' (ऊ) respectively. Roman cursive is a form of handwriting (or a script ) used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages . It

6882-472: The pinnacle of blackletter use was reached in the 14th and 15th centuries. For Lieftinck, the highest form of textualis was littera textualis formata , used for de luxe manuscripts. The usual form, simply littera textualis , was used for literary works and university texts. Lieftinck's third form, littera textualis currens , was the cursive form of blackletter, extremely difficult to read and used for textual glosses , and less important books. Textualis

6975-507: The promotion of the Balbodh variant of Devanagari as the standard writing system for Marathi, Modi largely fell out of use by the mid-20th century. Since then there have been attempts to revive this script. A distinctive feature of this script is that the head stroke is written before the letters, in order to produce a "ruled page" for writing in lines. It has several characteristics that facilitate writing so that moving from one character to

7068-405: The provenance of a document (see Signature ) was a factor also, as opposed to machine font . Cursive was also favoured because the writing tool was rarely taken off the paper. The term cursive derives from Middle French cursif from Medieval Latin cursivus , which literally means 'running'. This term in turn derives from Latin currere ('to run, hasten'). Although by the 2010s,

7161-467: The quill with a wide flat tip) was adopted for blackletter handwriting. In the early 20th century, the Sütterlin script was introduced in the schools. Italian blackletter also is known as rotunda , as it was less angular than those produced by northern printing centers. The most common form of Italian rotunda was littera bononiensis , used at the University of Bologna in the 13th century. Biting

7254-413: The right. It has uncial features as well, such as the ascender of the letter ⟨d⟩ slanting to the left, and vertical initial strokes of ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ . In northern Italy, the monastery at Bobbio used Carolingian minuscule beginning in the 9th century. Outside the sphere of influence of Charlemagne and his successors, however, the new legible hand was resisted by

7347-402: The same time, the modern dotted i appeared. The new script spread through Western Europe most widely where Carolingian influence was strongest. In luxuriously produced lectionaries that now began to be produced for princely patronage of abbots and bishops, legibility was essential. It reached far afield: the 10th century Freising manuscripts , which contain the oldest Slovene language ,

7440-792: The script can be seen in the distinctively cló-Gaelach (Irish style) forms of the letters, especially a, e, d, g, s, and t. Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of the Emperor Charlemagne (hence Carolingian). Charlemagne had a keen interest in learning, according to his biographer Einhard (here with apices ): Temptábat et scríbere, tabulásque et códicellós ad hoc in lectó sub cervícálibus circumferre solébat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litterís effigiendís adsuésceret, sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac séró incohátus. He also tried to write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to form

7533-559: The use of cursive appeared to be on the decline, as of 2019 it seemed to be coming back into use. In the Bengali cursive script (also known in Bengali as "professional writing" ) the letters are more likely to be more curvy in appearance than in standard Bengali handwriting. Also, the horizontal supporting bar on each letter ( matra ) runs continuously through the entire word, unlike in standard handwriting. This cursive handwriting often used by literature experts differs in appearance from

7626-459: Was called a "fair hand", meaning it looked good, and firms trained all their clerks to write in exactly the same script. Although women's handwriting had noticeably different particulars from men's , the general forms were not prone to rapid change. In the mid-19th century, most children were taught the contemporary cursive; in the United States, this usually occurred in second or third grade (around ages seven to nine). Few simplifications appeared as

7719-541: Was developed. Cursive writing was used in English before the Norman conquest . Anglo-Saxon charters typically include a boundary clause written in Old English in a cursive script. A cursive handwriting style— secretary hand —was widely used for both personal correspondence and official documents in England from early in the 16th century. Cursive handwriting developed into something approximating its current form from

7812-478: Was first used in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently became more elaborate and decorated, and it was generally reserved for liturgical works. Johann Gutenberg used a textualis typeface for his famous Gutenberg Bible in 1455. Schwabacher , a blackletter with more rounded letters, soon became the usual printed typeface , but it was replaced by Fraktur in the early 17th century. Fraktur came into use when Emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) established

7905-778: Was first used to describe this script in 15th-century Italy , in the midst of the Renaissance , because Renaissance humanists believed this style was barbaric, and Gothic was a synonym for barbaric . Flavio Biondo , in Italia Illustrata (1474), wrote that the Germanic Lombards invented this script after they invaded Italy in the 6th century. Not only were blackletter forms called Gothic script , but any other seemingly barbarian script, such as Visigothic , Beneventan , and Merovingian , were also labeled Gothic . This in contrast to Carolingian minuscule ,

7998-610: Was master from 782 to 796, with a two-year break. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, of which the Ada Gospels provided classic models, and later from the influential scriptorium at Marmoutier Abbey (Tours) , where Alcuin withdrew from court service as an abbot in 796 and restructured the scriptorium. Carolingian minuscule was uniform with rounded shapes in clearly distinguishable glyphs , disciplined and above all, legible. Clear capital letters and spaces between words became standard in Carolingian minuscule, which

8091-463: Was most widely used in France, the Low Countries, England , and Germany . Some characteristics of the script are: Schwabacher was a blackletter form that was much used in early German print typefaces. It continued to be used occasionally until the 20th century. Characteristics of Schwabacher are: Fraktur is a form of blackletter that became the most common German blackletter typeface by

8184-613: Was one result of a campaign to achieve a culturally unifying standardization across the Carolingian Empire . Traditional charters, however, continued to be written in a Merovingian "chancery hand" long after manuscripts of Scripture and classical literature were being produced in the minuscule hand. Documents written in a local language, like Gothic or Anglo-Saxon rather than Latin, tended to be expressed in traditional local script. Carolingian script generally has fewer ligatures than other contemporary scripts , although

8277-485: Was the most legible and calligraphic style. Littera cursiva textualis (or libraria ) was the usual form, used for writing standard books, and it generally was written with a larger pen, leading to larger letters. Littera cursiva currens was used for textbooks and other unimportant books and it had very little standardization in forms. Hybrida is also called bastarda (especially in France), and as its name suggests,

8370-495: Was then further developed and popularized throughout the British Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries as round hand by John Ayers and William Banson. Today there is no standardised teaching script stipulated in the various national curriculums for schools in the United Kingdom, only that one font style needs to be used consistently throughout the school. In both the cursive and the continuous cursive writing styles, letters are created through joining lines and curve shapes in

8463-496: Was unable to effectively keep up. Its large size consumed a lot of manuscript space in a time when writing materials were very costly. As early as the 11th century, different forms of Carolingian were already being used, and by the mid-12th century, a clearly distinguishable form, able to be written more quickly to meet the demand for new books, was being used in northeastern France and the Low Countries . The term Gothic

8556-400: Was used from approximately the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; "a", "b", "d", and "e" have taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters are proportionate to each other rather than varying wildly in size and placement on a line. The Greek alphabet has had several cursive forms in the course of its development. In antiquity,

8649-664: Was used in Burgundy , the lettre de forme or lettre bourgouignonne , for books of hours such as the Très Riches Heures of John, Duke of Berry . Despite the frequent association of blackletter with German , the script was actually very slow to develop in German-speaking areas. It developed first in those areas closest to France and then spread to the east and south in the 13th century. The German-speaking areas are, however, where blackletter remained in use

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