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74-437: Technical Testing Center was founded by Yugoslav Federal Defence Secretariat on 22 March 1973 by uniting and transforming 7 military technical institutes of Yugoslav Ground Forces . In 2006 due to rationalization it was merged with Air Force Testing Center and Navy Testing Center into a single institution. Technical Testing Center primary mission include quality control of military equipment as well as metrological securing of

148-520: A conventional warhead of similar weight. Typical range for the missile is about 45 km (28 mi), with a maximum altitude around 20,000 m (66,000 ft). The radar and guidance system imposed a fairly long short-range cutoff of about 500 to 1,000 m (1,600 to 3,300 ft), making them fairly safe for engagements at low level. The S-75 typically uses the P-12 early warning radar (also known by its NATO codename, "Spoon Rest"), which has

222-408: A dress uniform. Military school cadets wore soldier's uniforms. Soldiers' winter and summer uniforms were made of light or heavy wool and cotton in olive-green. All soldiers wore neckties of the same colors except in summer, when the uniform shirt was worn with an open collar. There were several variations on the basic soldier's uniform and women's uniforms were of the same style as those for men, with

296-467: A lethal radius of about 65 m (200 ft) at lower altitudes, but at higher altitudes the thinner atmosphere allows for a wider radius of up to 250 m (800 ft). The missile itself is accurate to about 75 m (250 ft), which explains why two were typically fired in a salvo. One version, the S-75AK, mounted a 295 kg (650 lb) nuclear warhead of an estimated 15 kiloton yield or

370-599: A missile which could bring down a large, non-maneuvering, high-altitude aircraft. As such it did not need to be highly maneuverable, merely fast and able to resist aircraft counter-measures. For such a pioneering system, development proceeded rapidly, and testing began a few years later. In 1957, the wider public first became aware of the S-75 when the missile was shown at that year's May Day parade in Moscow . Wide-scale deployment started in 1957, with various upgrades following over

444-708: A missile, the Shrike could be neutralized with the side-pointing technique without sacrificing any S-75s. Another tactic was a "false launch" in which missile guidance signals were transmitted without a missile being launched. This could distract enemy pilots, or even occasionally cause them to drop ordnance prematurely to lighten their aircraft enough to dodge the nonexistent missile. At the same time, evasive maneuvers were used, and intensive bombardments of identified SAM firing positions were organized. Under these conditions, camouflage and radio silence became especially important. After combat launches, an anti-aircraft missile division

518-540: A photograph of the wreckage of the self-destructed missile as evidence of airplane wreckage. According to Indian sources, no Pakistani aircraft penetrated so deeply into Indian territory. The missile system was used widely throughout the world, especially in the Middle East , where Egypt and Syria used them to defend against the Israeli Air Force , with the air defence net accounting for the majority of

592-435: A range of about 275 km (171 mi). The P-12 provides early detection of incoming aircraft, which are then handed off to the acquisition Fan Song radar. These radars, having a range of about 65 km (40 mi), are used to refine the location, altitude, and speed of the hostile aircraft. The Fan Song system consists of two antennas operating on different frequencies, one providing elevation (altitude) information and

666-1013: A real military operation, rather an exercise, until they came under attack. The officer corps was dominated by Serbs and Montenegrins and in many cases ideologically committed to Yugoslav unity. The rank and file troops however were conscripts, many who had no strong motivation in fighting against the Slovenes. Of the soldiers of the 5th Military District, which was in action in Slovenia, in 1990 30% were Albanians , 20% Croats , 15 to 20% Serbs and Montenegrins , 10% Bosniaks , and 8% Slovenes . The JNA eventually lost nearly all of its Slovenian and Croat personnel, becoming an almost entirely Serbian and Montenegrin force. Its poor performance in Slovenia and later in Croatia discredited its leadership – Kadijević resigned as defence minister in January 1992, and Adžić

740-581: A site in October 1965. The Air Force fitted B-66 bombers with powerful jammers (which blinded the early warning radars) and developed smaller jamming pods for fighters (which denied range information to enemy radars). Later developments included the Wild Weasel aircraft, which were fitted with AGM-45 Shrike missile systems made to home in on the radar from the threat. The Soviets and Vietnamese were able to adapt to some of these tactics. The USSR upgraded

814-443: A skirt being substituted for trousers. Paratroops wore an olive-green beret instead of the standard garrison or service cap. Mountain troops wore distinctive stiff field caps with semi-rigid visors and ear flaps. They wore loose winter shirts, under which additional layers could be worn. The shirt itself had a lining and a collar that could be turned up to cover the neck and chin. The trousers worn by mountain troops extended just below

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888-543: A yellow-gold sash belt lined with the appropriate service color. Cap emblems all included a red star with yellow-gold rays, given distinctive configurations according to branch. Airborne officers had the red star resting on a silver parachute against a blue background. Cap emblems for general officers showed the same gold wreath as the shoulder boards. SA-2 Grushin MKB Fakel (missile developer), The S-75 (Russian: С-75; NATO reporting name SA-2 Guideline )

962-485: Is a Soviet-designed, high-altitude air defence system. It is built around a surface-to-air missile with command guidance . Following its first deployment in 1957 it became one of the most widely deployed air defence systems in history. It scored the first destruction of an enemy aircraft by a surface-to-air missile, with the shooting down of a Taiwanese Martin RB-57D Canberra over China on 7 October 1959 that

1036-798: Is involved in making of more than 700 defense standards. Some of 7,000 tests conducted by the Center include: Center consists of 5 departments and 3 testing centers: Since testing of new weaponry is always high risk mission there were accident during test procured by the Center with some of them having fatalities. During tests there are explosions, flights with new, never before tested and crewed aircraft types, dangerous tasks like testing new tanks passing rivers by diving, firing of new missile and many more risks. Some notable accidents include: Yugoslav Ground Forces Yugoslav Wars The Yugoslav Ground Forces ( Serbo-Croatian : Kopnena Vojska – KoV, Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic : Копнена Војска – КоВ)

1110-413: Is partially caused by the fact that gun units received data from the S-75 radar stations that significantly improved their effectiveness. Soviet Air Defence Forces started to replace the S-75 with the vastly superior S-300 system in the 1980s. The S-75 remains in widespread service throughout the world, with some level of operational ability in 35 countries. In the 2000s, Vietnam and Egypt are tied for

1184-978: The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution the Land Forces were divided into six armies allocated to the five republics. While parts of the structure changed from 1968 to 1988, the main outlines stayed the same: Plus the Coastal Naval District ( Split ) – formerly Fourth Army As of July 1979 the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the Yugoslav ground forces to include 190,000 personnel (including 130,000 conscripts ), eight infantry divisions, seven independent tank brigades, 12 independent infantry brigades, two mountain infantry brigades, one airborne battalion, 12 artillery regiments, six anti-tank artillery regiments, and 12 anti-aircraft artillery regiments. Tensions between

1258-559: The Cuban Missile Crisis , a U-2 piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson was shot down over Cuba by an S-75 in October 1962. In 1965, North Vietnam asked for assistance against American airpower, since their own air-defence system lacked the ability to shoot down aircraft flying at high altitude. After some discussion it was agreed to supply the PAVN with the S-75. The decision was not made lightly, because it greatly increased

1332-491: The Hanoi - Haiphong area and were off-limits to attack (as were local airfields) for political reasons. On 8 September 1965, during the 1965 Indo-Pakistani war , an Indian S-75 Dvina was fired at an unidentified target believed to have been on a night mission above Ghaziabad near Delhi during the height of a paratrooper scare. Subsequent news reports would claim the destruction of a Pakistani C-130 west of Delhi, showing

1406-782: The People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia (NOVJ), a predecessor of JNA, was formed on 22 December 1941 in the town of Rudo in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the establishment of the 1st Proletarian Brigade . After the liberation of the country from the Axis Powers occupation, that date was officially celebrated as the Day of the Army in the SFR Yugoslavia . In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed

1480-687: The Soviet Air Defence Forces had large numbers of anti-aircraft artillery (AAA), including radar-directed batteries, the limitations of guns versus high-altitude jet bombers were obvious. Therefore, the Soviet Air Defence Forces began the development of missile systems to replace the World War II-vintage gun defences. In 1953, KB-2 began the development of what became the S-75 under the direction of Pyotr Grushin . This program focused on producing

1554-1077: The Territorial Defense (TO) was formed to support the JNA and on 21 February 1974 TO units were subordinated to their provinces or republics. Thus the JNA and TO became equal parts of the Yugoslav Armed Forces (Oružane Snage SFRJ). In July 1970, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the Yugoslav ground forces to include 200,000 personnel, nine infantry divisions with some T-34 tanks ; one armoured division with M47 Patton , T-54 , and T-55 tanks; 33 independent infantry brigades, 12 independent tank brigades, one marine infantry brigade, one airborne brigade, 650 M4 Sherman tanks, PT-76 and about 35 AMX-13 tanks, M-3, BTR-50, and BTR-60P armoured personnel carriers , SU-100 self propelled guns, and 105mm and 155 howitzers, SA-2 "Guideline" surface to air missiles, and SU-57P self propelled anti aircraft guns. In accordance with

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1628-837: The 1960s and 1970s. It had 100 M-3A1 half-tracked personnel carriers produced by the United States and a small number of new Romanian TAB-72 (a variant of the BTR-60 ) armored personnel carriers. Armored reconnaissance vehicles included a few older Soviet BTR-40s, newer BRDM-2 and BTR-60 models, and domestic BOV and M-8 vehicles. Yugoslav artillery regiments were well equipped with Soviet, U.S. and domestic systems. Soviet artillery in these units consisted of approximately 1,000 towed 122 mm howitzers, 130 mm guns, 152 mm gun/howitzers, and 155 mm howitzers. There were about 700 older United States 105 mm and 155 mm towed guns and domestically produced models such as

1702-457: The 1980s the ground forces had about 140,000 active-duty soldiers (including 90,000 conscripts) and could mobilize over a million trained reservists in wartime. Most soldiers were of Serbian, Albanian, Croatian, Bosnian, Macedonian or Montenegrin origin. Reserve forces were organized along republican lines into Partisan Forces and Territorial Defence Forces and in wartime they were to be subordinate to JNA Supreme Command as an integral part of

1776-407: The 48-kilometre (30 mi) exclusion zone. On the morning of July 27, 48 F-105s participated in the strike, Operation Spring High . The Vietnamese knew US aircraft were coming, and set up many 23 mm (0.91 in) and 37 mm (1.5 in) anti-aircraft guns at the two SAM sites. These anti-aircraft guns were lethal at close range. The Vietnamese shot down six aircraft and more than half of

1850-556: The Armed Forces General Staff. In 1988 the armies were reorganized into Military Districts or Regions which no longer corresponded to internal borders thereby making it harder for the republics to control their own forces. Apart from the Proletarian Guard , a mechanized corps, the Land Forces infantry divisions were reorganized into 17 Corps each consisting of four to eight brigades. In late June 1990,

1924-580: The First, Third and Fifth Air Corps. Small number of units of the ground and air forces were outside of the military regions directly under General Staff command and control. The fourth military region was the Military Sea Region (or Naval Region), a joint Navy / Ground Forces formation, which was in general commanded by the chief of the Navy, with ground forces units for coastal defence in the rear of

1998-710: The JNA and the TO became evident at the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated in the 1980s. The Federal government became concerned that Yugoslavia's constituent republics would use the TO to facilitate their secession from Yugoslavia and therefore disarmed the Kosovo TO of 130,000 members. In 1988 the JNA absorbed the entire TO with the Bosnian Serb General Blagoje Adžić becoming the JNA Chief of

2072-620: The JNA dissolved the 6th Proletarian Infantry Division and the Zagreb city defence command. Once considered the fourth strongest army in Europe with 140,000 active troops and million reserves, in 1991, at the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars the ground forces were organized in four military regions . The First, Third and Fifth corresponded to the three field armies of the ground forces. The Air Force and Air Defence followed this pattern with

2146-594: The Linebacker II campaign, the shootdown rate of the S-75 against the B-52s was 7.52% (15 B-52s were shot down, 5 B-52s were heavily damaged for 266 missiles ). However, some of the U.S aircraft which "crashed in flight accidents" in fact were lost due to S-75 missiles. When landing at an airfield in Thailand, one B-52 that had been heavily damaged by a SAM rolled off the runway and exploded on mines installed around

2220-726: The M-65 in the artillery regiments. Towed pieces were very important for operations in the country's mountainous terrain. Artillery units operated Soviet 100 mm and 122 mm and Yugoslav-produced 105 mm M-7 self-propelled guns . Those units had over 8,000 82 mm and 120 mm mortars, including a self-propelled 82 mm mortar mounted on an M-60PB variant of the standard armored personnel carrier. Yugoslav artillery units operated several battlefield missile systems including 160 128 mm YMRL-32 and M-63 multiple-rocket launchers. The arsenal included four launchers for Soviet FROG-7 surface-to-surface missiles. First fielded in 1967,

2294-406: The Shrike. One of them was to point the radar to the side and then turn it off briefly. Since the Shrike was a relatively primitive anti-radiation missile, it would follow the beam away from the radar and then simply crash when it lost the signal (after the radar was turned off). SAM crews could briefly illuminate a hostile aircraft to see if the target was equipped with a Shrike. If the aircraft fired

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2368-930: The Soviet AT-1 (NATO: Snapper ) and AT-3 (NATO: Sagger ). They were used in both anti-tank and infantry units, but because of their early vintage, effectiveness against advanced armor was uncertain. The four wheeled BOV-1 armored reconnaissance vehicle could be equipped with six AT-3 launchers to serve as a highly mobile anti-tank platform. Larger Yugoslav army units had considerable tactical air defense assets, designed to defend major troop concentrations against enemy air strikes. The ground forces had four surface-to-air missile regiments and eleven antiaircraft artillery regiments. The former operated large numbers of Soviet SA-6 , SA-7 , SA-9 , SA-13 , SA-14 , SA-16 missiles. Short-range systems also were employed in infantry units. Yugoslav antiaircraft artillery regiments operated over 5,000 guns. Self-propelled gun systems included

2442-607: The Soviet Union on May 1, 1960. The system was also deployed in Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis , when it shot down another U-2 (piloted by Rudolf Anderson ) overflying Cuba on October 27, 1962, almost precipitating a nuclear war. North Vietnamese forces used the S-75 extensively during the Vietnam War to successfully defend Hanoi and Haiphong against US bombing. It was produced in the People's Republic of China under

2516-588: The Soviet Union. The USAF quickly followed the B-47 with the development of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress , which had greater range and payload than the B-47. The range, speed, and payload of these US bombers posed a significant threat to the Soviet Union in the event of a war between the two countries. Consequently, the Soviets initiated the development of improved air defence systems. Although

2590-620: The Soviet-designed SS-C-3 and a truck-mounted, Yugoslav-produced Brom antiship missile which was essentially a Yugoslav variant of the Soviet SS-N-2. Coastal guns included over 400 85 mm , 88 mm , 122 mm , 130 mm , and 152 mm artillery pieces obtained from the Soviet Union, the United States, captured and refurbished WW2 German and Italian pieces, and Yugoslav manufacturers. Soldiers and NCOs were issued field uniforms and service uniforms, while NCOs were authorised

2664-509: The Soviet-made 57 mm dual ZSU-57-2 gun systems and the domestically produced triple 20 mm BOV-3s and dual 30 mm BOV-30s . Large numbers of towed antiaircraft guns of many calibers were in the inventory. Of both domestic and foreign origin, they included pieces purchased from the United States, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland, and Sweden. The coastal artillery batteries had both surface-to-surface missiles and guns. They operated

2738-608: The Taiwanese ROCAF would lose several aircraft to the S-75, both RB-57s and various drones . On May 1, 1960, Gary Powers' U-2 was shot down while flying over the testing site near Sverdlovsk . The first missile destroyed the U-2, and a further 13 were also fired, hitting a pursuing high-altitude MiG-19. The downing of the U-2 led to the U-2 Crisis of 1960. Additionally, Chinese S-75s downed five ROCAF-piloted U-2s. During

2812-577: The Vietnamese had nothing to threaten American pilots in the air. U.S aircraft flew at an altitude of 4 to 5 kilometres (13,000 to 16,000 ft), and the Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns were unable to reach them. However, after an S-75 shot down a US F-4 Phantom aircraft, the US bombers began to descend below 3 kilometres (10,000 ft), below the minimum operational height of the Dvina. This brought them within

2886-617: The Yugoslav Army ( Jugoslovenska Armija ) and finally on its 10th anniversary on 22 December 1951, received the adjective People's (i.e. Narodna ). From eight divisions in the early 1950s, the ground forces grew to what the ISS estimated as a strength of 220,000, including 13 infantry, 3 armoured, and 6 mountain divisions, and 14 independent brigades, including an airborne and a marine infantry brigade, in August 1966. In September 1968,

2960-455: The airfield to protect from the guerrillas; only one crewman survived. Subsequently, this B-52 was counted as "crashed in flight accidents". According to Dana Drenkowski and Lester W. Grau , the number of US aircraft confirmed by themselves as lost is uncorroborated since the US figures are also suspect. If a plane was badly damaged but managed to land, the USAF did not count as a loss even if it

3034-434: The basic dress uniform. The shirt buttons of the dress uniform were yellow-gold instead of the service color. The trousers, jackets, and overcoats were piped red along the seams. The dress cap visor showed the same piping as the officer's shoulder boards. The general officer's dress cap had a chin strap of twisted gold cord. Other officers wore plain plastic or leather chin straps. Full dress uniforms were blue and were worn with

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3108-470: The center. This unique "flower" shape led to the sites being easily recognizable in reconnaissance photos. Typically another six missiles are stored on tractor-trailers near the center of the site. The V-750 is a two-stage missile consisting of a solid-fuel booster and a storable liquid-fuel upper stage, which burns AK-20 (based on red fuming nitric acid ) as the oxidizer and TG-02 (toxic mixture of 50-52% triethylamine and 48-50% isomeric xylidine ) as

3182-403: The chances that one would fall into US hands for study. Site preparation started early in the year, and the US detected the program almost immediately on 5 April 1965. On 24 July 1965, a USAF F-4C aircraft was shot down by an S-75. Three days later, the US responded with Operation Iron Hand to attack the other sites before they could become operational. Most of the S-75 were deployed around

3256-507: The defence system. The Territorial Defence Forces (reserve force) was made up of former conscripts and they were occasionally called up for war exercises. The ground forces were subdivided into infantry, armour , field artillery, and air defence artillery, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps. During the Ten Day War the JNA performed abysmally as many of the Yugoslav soldiers did not realise they were taking part in

3330-449: The defense system. It is obligated to research maximum weapons capabilities and to demonstrate possibilities of different usage and usage in extreme circumstances. Center employs more than 150 engineers as well as highly-skilled pilots and drivers who are in charge of driving or flying prototypes tested. It has 25 laboratories and 2 testing polygons with about 2,000 measuring devices. It has more than 350 developed methods for testings and it

3404-866: The downed Israeli aircraft. The last success seems to have occurred during the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) , when Georgian missiles shot down a Russian Sukhoi Su-27 fighter near Gudauta on March 19, 1993. During the siege of Bihac , in the Bosnian War (1992-1995) , Serb forces from Krajina fired at least three S-75 in the ground-to-ground mode at the Bosnian city of Cazin . In the Yemeni Civil War (2015-present) , Houthis modified some of their S-75 into surface-to-surface ballistic missiles to attack Saudi bases with them. Between 1964 and early 1965

3478-424: The early-warning radars and coordinate battalion actions. The battalions will contain several batteries with their associated acquisition and targeting radars. Each battalion will typically have six, semi-fixed, single-rail launchers for their V-750 missiles positioned approximately 60 to 100 m (200 to 330 ft) apart from each other in a hexagonal "flower" pattern, with radars and guidance systems placed in

3552-402: The extreme rear and (in most models) much smaller fins on the nose. The missiles are guided using radio control signals (sent on one of three channels) from the guidance computers at the site. The earlier S-75 models received their commands via two sets of four small antennas in front of the forward fins while the D model and later models used four much larger strip antennas running between

3626-453: The forward and middle fins. The guidance system at an S-75 site can handle only one target at a time, but it can direct three missiles against it. Additional missiles could be fired against the same target after one or more missiles of the first salvo had completed their run, freeing the radio channel. The missile typically mounts a 195 kg (430 lb) fragmentation warhead, with proximity, contact, and command fusing . The warhead has

3700-421: The fuel. The booster fires for about 4–5 seconds and the main engine for about 22 seconds, by which time the missile is traveling at about Mach 3 (2,200 mph). The booster mounts four large, cropped- delta wing fins that have small control surfaces in their trailing edges to control roll . The upper stage has smaller cropped-deltas near the middle of the airframe, with a smaller set of control surfaces at

3774-413: The knee, with a strap and buckle closure. Leather leggings, heavy wool socks, and foul-weather capes also were worn by the mountain troops. Several different patterns of camouflage uniforms were worn by select units. Officers had to buy their field, service, dress, and full dress uniforms. They wore insignia on the lapels of the field uniform shirts. The service uniform differed only in a few details from

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3848-508: The largest deployments at 280 missiles each, while North Korea has 270. The Chinese also deploy the HQ-2, an upgrade of the S-75, in relatively large numbers. The Soviet Union used a fairly standard organizational structure for S-75 units. Other countries that have employed the S-75 may have modified this structure. Typically, the S-75 is organized into a regimental structure with three subordinate battalions. The regimental headquarters will control

3922-468: The loss of 15 of the bombers and damage to numerous others. The ECM proved to be generally effective, but repetitive USAF flight tactics early in the bombing campaign increased the vulnerability of the bombers and the North Vietnamese missile crews adopted a practice of firing large S-75 salvos to overwhelm the planes' defensive countermeasures (see Operation Linebacker II ). By the conclusion of

3996-511: The memoirs of Soviet advisers, on average an anti-aircraft missile unit destroyed 5-6 American aircraft before being put out of action. Despite these advances, the US was able to come up with effective ECM packages for the B-52E and later models. When the B-52s flew large-scale raids against Hanoi and Haiphong over an eleven-day period in December 1972, 266 S-75 missiles were fired, resulting in

4070-506: The names HQ-1 (under licence) and HQ-2 (modified, named FT-2000A). Egyptian engineers produced a reverse-engineered S-75 with the name Tayir-as-Sabah . In the early 1950s, the United States Air Force rapidly accelerated its development of long-range jet bombers carrying nuclear weapons. The USAF program led to the deployment of Boeing B-47 Stratojet supported by aerial refueling aircraft to extend its range deep into

4144-565: The naval artillery. The Military Sea Region did not have tactical aviation units assigned and air support was provided by the three air corps. In 1990 the army had nearly completed a major overhaul of its basic force structure. It eliminated its old divisional infantry organization and established the brigade as the largest operational unit. The army converted ten of twelve infantry divisions into twenty-nine tank , mechanized, and mountain infantry brigades with integral artillery , air defense , and anti-tank regiments. One airborne brigade

4218-590: The next few years. The S-75 was never meant to replace the S-25 Berkut surface-to-air missile sites around Moscow , but it did replace high-altitude anti-aircraft guns, such as the 130 mm (5.1 in) KS-30 and 100 mm (3.9 in) KS-19 . Between mid-1958 and 1964, US intelligence assets located more than 600 S-75 sites in the USSR. These sites tended to cluster around population centers, industrial complexes, and government control centers. A ring of sites

4292-709: The other azimuth (bearing) information. Regimental headquarters also include a Spoon Rest, as well as a Flat Face long-range C-band radar and Side Net height-finder. Information from these radars is sent from the regiment down to the battalion Spoon Rest operators to allow them to coordinate their searches. Earlier S-75 versions used a targeting radar known as Knife Rest, which was replaced in Soviet use, but can still be found in older installations. Upgrades to anti-aircraft missile systems typically combine improved missiles, radars, and operator consoles. Usually missile upgrades drive changes to other components to take advantage of

4366-450: The radar several times to improve electronic countermeasure (ECM) resistance. They also introduced a passive guidance mode, whereby the tracking radar could lock onto the jamming signal itself and guide missiles directly towards the jamming source. This also meant the SAM site's tracking radar could be turned off, which prevented Shrikes from homing in on it. New tactics were developed to combat

4440-487: The reach of Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns. On July 24, 1965, four US Air Force McDonnell F-4C Phantoms took part in an airstrike against the Điện Biên Phủ munitions storage depot and the Lang Chi munitions factory west of Hanoi. One was shot down and three damaged by S-75s. This was the first time US aircraft were attacked by SAMs. Two days later President Johnson gave the order to attack known S-75 positions outside

4514-567: The remaining US aircraft suffered damage from ground fire. However, the Vietnamese had replaced the SAMs with white-painted bundles of bamboo . Operation Spring High had destroyed two decoy targets for the loss of six aircraft and five pilots. Between 1965 and 1966 the US developed countermeasures to the S-75 threat. The Navy soon had the AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation air-to-surface missile in service and mounted their first offensive strike on

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4588-601: The unguided FROG-7 had a range of 100 kilometers. Yugoslav anti-tank regiments had towed anti-tank guns, recoilless rifles, and Soviet anti-tank guided missiles . Antitank guns included 75 mm, 90 mm, and 100 mm models. They were Soviet produced with the exception of the 90 mm M-63B2, which was manufactured domestically. The recoilless rifles were manufactured domestically and included 57 mm, 82 mm , and 105 mm models. Two self-propelled 82 mm recoilless rifles could be mounted on an M-60PB armored personnel carrier. Anti-tank guided missiles were

4662-720: Was a frontline model during the 1960s. Domestic production of the M-84 (an improved version of the Soviet T-72 built under license in Yugoslavia) was providing the army with a late 1970s and 1980s model. The army also had a reserve of old T-34/85 and Sherman tanks from World War II. The Yugoslav army had 995 M-80A IFVs and 551 M-60P armored personnel carriers produced domestically. The infantry also operated more than 200 Soviet-made BTR-152 , BTR-40 , and BTR-50 armored personnel carriers (APCs), which had been purchased in

4736-462: Was also located around likely bomber routes into the Soviet heartland. By the mid-1960s, the Soviet Union had ended the deployment of the S-75 with perhaps 1,000 operational sites. In addition to the Soviet Union, several S-75 batteries were deployed during the 1960s in East Germany to protect Soviet forces stationed in that country. Later the system was sold to most Warsaw Pact countries and

4810-485: Was fairly light, due to the scattered and short-term nature of the fighting. The ground forces led in personnel. It had about 540,000 active-duty soldiers (including 120,000 conscripts) and could mobilize over a million trained reservists in wartime. Reserve forces were organized along republics' lines into Territorial Defence Forces and in wartime they were to be subordinate to JNA Supreme Command as an integral part of defence system. Territorial Defence (reserve force)

4884-650: Was forced into medical retirement shortly afterwards. Due to the short duration (10 Days) and relatively low intensity of the war, casualties were low. According to Slovenian estimates, the JNA suffered 44 fatalities and 146 wounded, while 4,692 JNA soldiers and 252 federal police officers were captured by the Slovenian side. According to post-war assessments made by the JNA, its material losses amounted to 31 tanks, 22 armoured personnel carriers, 6 helicopters, 6,787 infantry weapons, 87 artillery pieces and 124 air defence weapons damaged, destroyed or confiscated. Property damage

4958-486: Was hit by a salvo of three V-750 (1D) missiles at an altitude of 20 km (66,000 ft). This success was credited to Chinese fighter aircraft at the time to keep the S-75 program secret. This system first gained international fame when an S-75 battery, using the newer, longer-range, higher-altitude V-750VN (13D) missile was deployed in the 1960 U-2 incident , when it shot down the U-2 of Francis Gary Powers overflying

5032-533: Was made up of former conscripts and they were occasionally called up for war exercises. The ground forces were infantry, armour , artillery, and air defence, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps. Yugoslav tank brigades comprised two or three battalions each with 31 tanks in three ten tank companies. They operated 1114 Soviet T-54s and T-55s , 73 Soviet T-72s , 443 Yugoslav M-84s , and some United States-made M-47 tanks. The army's tanks were in many respects its most obsolete forces. The T-54/-55

5106-468: Was more appropriate at a time of declining manpower. There were 17 Corps (both named and numbered), they consist of the following: Each Corps contained the following: During the course of the ten-year-long Yugoslav wars, corps were modified by being reinforced with extra units from out of theatre; battalions then became regiments and regiments became brigades. However many units were also disbanded when their non-Serbian/Montenegrin personnel deserted. In

5180-412: Was organized before 1990. The shift to brigade-level organization provided greater operational flexibility, maneuverability , and tactical initiative, and it reduced the possibility that large army units would be destroyed in setpiece engagements with an aggressor. The change created many senior field command positions that would develop relatively young and talented officers. The brigade structure also

5254-412: Was provided to China, North Korea, and eventually, North Vietnam. While the shooting down of Francis Gary Powers' U-2 in 1960 is the first publicized success for the S-75, the first aircraft shot down by the S-75 was a Taiwanese Martin RB-57D Canberra high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft . The aircraft was hit by a Chinese-operated S-75 site near Beijing on October 7, 1959. Over the next few years,

5328-680: Was the ground forces branch of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) from 1 March 1945 until 20 May 1992 when the last remaining remnants were merged into the Ground Forces of the new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , under the threat of sanctions. The origins of the JNA can be found in the Yugoslav Partisan units of World War II. As a part of the Resistance during World War II People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia ,

5402-476: Was to leave the area immediately, otherwise it would be destroyed by a bombing attack. Until December 1965, according to American data, eight S-75M systems were destroyed, although sometimes American aircraft bombed dummy positions equipped with decoy missiles made of bamboo . Soviet and Vietnamese calculations claimed the destruction of 31 aircraft; the Americans acknowledged the loss of 13 aircraft. According to

5476-475: Was too damaged to fly again. During the Vietnam war, the Soviet Union delivered 95 S-75 systems and 7,658 missiles to the Vietnamese. 6,806 missiles were launched or removed by outdating. According to the Vietnamese, the S-75 shot down 1,046 aircraft, or 31% of all downed US aircraft. By comparison, air-defense guns brought down 60% and 9% were shot down by MiG fighters. The higher rate of anti-aircraft artillery

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