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24-424: A tenterground , tenter ground or teneter-field was an area used for drying newly manufactured cloth after fulling . The wet cloth was hooked onto frames called " tenters " and stretched taut using " tenter hooks ", so that the cloth would dry flat and square. It is from this process that some have the expression " on tenterhooks ", meaning in a state of nervous tension. There were tentergrounds wherever cloth

48-438: A hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understood. Hydrates are inorganic salts "containing water molecules combined in a definite ratio as an integral part of the crystal " that are either bound to a metal center or that have crystallized with

72-402: A form of clathrate . An important example is methane hydrate (also known as gas hydrate, methane clathrate, etc.). Nonpolar molecules such as methane can form clathrate hydrates with water, especially under high pressure. Although there is no hydrogen bonding between water and guest molecules when methane is the guest molecule of the clathrate, guest–host hydrogen bonding often forms when

96-584: A molecular entity". For example: ethanol , CH 3 −CH 2 −OH , is the product of the hydration reaction of ethene , CH 2 =CH 2 , formed by the addition of H to one C and OH to the other C, and so can be considered as the hydrate of ethene. A molecule of water may be eliminated, for example, by the action of sulfuric acid . Another example is chloral hydrate , CCl 3 −CH(OH) 2 , which can be formed by reaction of water with chloral , CCl 3 −CH=O . Many organic molecules, as well as inorganic molecules, form crystals that incorporate water into

120-413: Is the number of water molecules per formula unit of the salt, is commonly used to show that a salt is hydrated. The n is usually a low integer , though it is possible for fractional values to occur. For example, in a monohydrate n  = 1, and in a hexahydrate n  = 6. Numerical prefixes mostly of Greek origin are: A hydrate that has lost water is referred to as an anhydride ;

144-490: The Industrial Revolution , coal and electric power were used. Felting refers more generally to the interlocking of loose wool fibers; they need not be spun and woven first. Fulling involves two processes: scouring (cleaning) and milling (thickening). Removing the oils encourages felting, and the cloth is pounded to clean it and to encourage the fibers to felt, so in practice the processes overlap. Urine

168-430: The nap raised by napping or gigging . The surface would then be sheared smooth. The process might be repeated for a smoother finish. The names for workers who performed these tasks ( fuller , tucker , and walker ) have become common surnames . The Welsh word for a fulling mill is pandy , which appears in many place-names, for example Tonypandy ("fulling mill lea"). Hydrous In chemistry ,

192-515: The Flemish weavers had dispersed, and in 1829 the Tenterground was developed for housing. From about 1850, it was populated by Dutch Jews (see Chuts ), to be joined later by Jewish refugees fleeing persecution in eastern Europe (see pogrom ). During the early part of the 20th century, the Tenterground was largely demolished for redevelopment, but some old buildings remain in and around

216-463: The area becoming a centre of the garment industry (the rag trade as it became known colloquially), with names such as Fashion Street and Petticoat Lane still extant. It was originally an area of open ground about 150 yards square, surrounded by the weavers' houses and workshops in White's Row , Wentworth Street, Bell Lane and Rose Lane (the last of which no longer exists). By the 19th century,

240-443: The area, including Flemish weavers' houses and an early Dutch synagogue which was formerly a Huguenot chapel . Another former Huguenot chapel is now a mosque . Rocque's 1746 map shows further tenter grounds between Bishopsgate and Moorfields, adjoining "Mr Witanoom's Vinegar Yard" ( i.e. Cornelius Wittenoom), and also covering large areas of Southwark . Lower Moor Fields, east of Finsbury , connected to Long Alley northwards,

264-426: The cloth was taken out about every two hours to undo plaits and wrinkles. The 'foot' was approximately triangular in shape, with notches to assist the turning of the cloth. After fulling, cloth was stretched on great frames known as tenters, to which it is attached by tenterhooks (whence the phrase being on tenterhooks ). The area where the tenters were erected was known as a tenterground . Cloth would also have

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288-503: The cloth while ankle deep in tubs of human urine . There are several Biblical references to fulling ( 2 Kings 18:17 ; Isaiah 7:3 and 36:2 ; Malachi 3:2 ; Mark 9:3 ). In addition to this, at least one reference appears in the speeches of Lysias , written in Athens during the 5th century BC. Scotland, then a rather remote and un-industrialized region, retained manual methods into the 1700s. In Scottish Gaelic tradition, this process

312-404: The cloth, it absorbs oils and dirt. It was used in conjunction with wash. More recently, soap has been used. The second function of fulling was to thicken cloth by matting the fibres together to give it strength and increase waterproofing ( felting ). This was vital in the case of woollens , made from carded wool , but not for worsted materials made from combed wool. After this stage, water

336-437: The crystalline structure without chemical alteration of the organic molecule ( water of crystallization ). The sugar trehalose , for example, exists in both an anhydrous form ( melting point 203 °C) and as a dihydrate (melting point 97 °C). Protein crystals commonly have as much as 50% water content. Molecules are also labeled as hydrates for historical reasons not covered above. Glucose , C 6 H 12 O 6 ,

360-431: The machinery was operated by cams on the shaft of a waterwheel or on a tappet wheel, which lifted the hammer. Driving stocks were pivoted so that the foot (the head of the hammer) struck the cloth almost horizontally. The stock had a tub holding the liquor and cloth. This was somewhat rounded on the side away from the hammer, so that the cloth gradually turned, ensuring that all parts of it were milled evenly. However,

384-476: The metal complex. Such hydrates are also said to contain water of crystallization or water of hydration . If the water is heavy water in which the constituent hydrogen is the isotope deuterium , then the term deuterate may be used in place of hydrate . A colorful example is cobalt(II) chloride , which turns from blue to red upon hydration , and can therefore be used as a water indicator. The notation " hydrated compound ⋅ n H 2 O ", where n

408-434: The remaining water, if any exists, can only be removed with very strong heating. A substance that does not contain any water is referred to as anhydrous . Some anhydrous compounds are hydrated so easily that they are said to be hygroscopic and are used as drying agents or desiccants . In organic chemistry, a hydrate is a compound formed by the hydration, i.e. "Addition of water or of the elements of water (i.e. H and OH) to

432-421: Was a cloth washing area with cloth pegged to the ground to be stretched and dried. The 1520 (early Tudor) map of london in layersoflondon.org shows a strip of land marked Tenter ground, between Cripplegate and Moorgate, with another behind The Bell Inn, immediately to the north Fulling Waulking could be done with the hands and feet. In medieval Europe, it was done in water-powered fulling mills. After

456-677: Was a fulling mill established at Temple Guiting , Gloucestershire which was documented in the Domesday Book (also 1086). E. A. Lewis (possibly Welsh historian Edward Arthur Lewis ) observed: By the time of the Crusades in the late eleventh century, fulling mills were active throughout the medieval world. The mills beat the cloth with wooden hammers, known as fulling stocks or fulling hammers. Fulling stocks were of two kinds, falling stocks (operating vertically) that were used only for scouring, and driving or hanging stocks. In both cases

480-637: Was accompanied by waulking songs , which women sang to set the pace. From the medieval period, the fulling of cloth was often done in a water mill , known as a fulling mill, a walk mill, or a tuck mill, and in Wales , a pandy. They appear to have originated in the 9th or 10th century in Europe. The earliest known reference to a fulling mill in France, which dates from about 1086, was discovered in Normandy . There

504-743: Was made, and as a result the word "tenter" is found in place names throughout the United Kingdom and its empire, for example several streets in Spitalfields , London and Tenterfield House in Haddington , East Lothian, Scotland, which in turn gave its name to Tenterfield in New South Wales, Australia. The Spitalfields Tenterground was established in the 17th century by Flemish weavers , who were Huguenot refugees fleeing religious persecution . Their weaving industry led to

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528-590: Was originally thought of as C 6 (H 2 O) 6 and described as a carbohydrate . Hydrate formation is common for active ingredients . Many manufacturing processes provide an opportunity for hydrates to form and the state of hydration can be changed with environmental humidity and time. The state of hydration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient can significantly affect the solubility and dissolution rate and therefore its bioavailability . Clathrate hydrates (also known as gas hydrates, gas clathrates, etc.) are water ice with gas molecules trapped within; they are

552-497: Was so important to the fulling business that it was taxed in Ancient Rome . Stale urine, known as wash or lant , was a source of ammonium salts and assisted in cleansing and whitening the cloth and having its fibers intertwined. By the medieval period, fuller's earth had been introduced for use in the process. This is a soft clay-like material occurring naturally as an impure hydrous aluminium silicate . Worked through

576-427: Was used to rinse out the foul-smelling liquor used during cleansing. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation because the microscopic scales on the surface of wool fibres hook together, somewhat like hook and loop fixings. Originally, fulling was carried out by the pounding of the woollen cloth with a club, or the fuller's feet or hands. In Roman times, fulling was conducted by slaves working

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