Misplaced Pages

#912087

69-618: The Tenth Street Freedman's Town is a historic African American community in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas , Texas . A freedmen's town is a community settled by formerly enslaved people who were emancipated during and after the American Civil War . The freedmen's town that became known as Tenth Street began near the confluence of Cedar Creek and Cedar Creek Branch, at the foot of an African American burial ground dating back to 1846. The name "Tenth Street" became associated with

138-595: A coalition of poor, white cotton farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama and Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the Plains States (especially Kansas and Nebraska), the Populists represented a radical form of agrarianism and hostility to elites, cities, banks, railroads, and gold. The Free Silver movement arose from a synergy of farming and mining interests. Farmers sought to invigorate

207-456: A streetcar suburb , Oak Cliff's characteristic twists and turns are largely due to the area's topography, and the paths and turnabouts created by the streetcar service. Residential streetcar service ended in January 1956. Oak Cliff was annexed by Dallas in 1903, after numerous attempts beginning in 1900. The proposal had met with little success, until the community's depressed economy produced

276-474: A continuing trend downward from a high of 3 and 1/8 pence in 1891. In February 1895, the U.S. Government turned to private financial institutions to underwrite the sale of Treasury bonds , stabilize exchange rates , and return the Treasury to its gold reserve requirement. The result was a contract drawn with what was called "The Morgan-Belmont Syndicate". The persistent balance of payments deficit in

345-571: A contributing factor to the depression. The People's Party , also known as the ' Populists ', was an agrarian -populist political party in the United States. From 1892 to 1896, it played a major role as a left-wing force in American politics. It drew support from angry farmers in the West and South. It was highly critical of capitalism , especially banks and railroads, and allied itself with

414-479: A distinct neighborhood identity as one of Dallas' older established neighborhoods. Oak Cliff has turn-of-the-20th century and mid-20th century housing, many parks, and is near the central business district of downtown Dallas . The boundaries of Oak Cliff are roughly Interstate 30 on the north, Loop 12 on the west, Interstate 35E on the east, the Trinity River on the northeast and Interstate 20 on

483-553: A failed coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. In addition, speculations in South African and Australian properties also collapsed. Because European investors were concerned that these problems might spread, they started a run on gold in the U.S. Treasury . Specie was considered more valuable than paper money; when people were uncertain about the future, they hoarded specie and rejected paper notes. During

552-607: A large increase in members shortly after being announced. Klavern 66 was able to spread their influence by producing their own newspaper, Texas 100% American , which was projected to circulate approximately 18,000 copies. In March 1922, another well-known Ku Klux Klan beating occurred, this time in Oak Cliff, against a tailor named W. J. Gilbert, as reported by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram . The Great Depression caused Dallas’ economy to suffer, resulting in

621-417: A pavilion below Thirteenth Street. It was bounded on the east by Miller Street, later named Cliff Street, and on the west by Beckley Avenue. Jefferson Boulevard was the route of a steam railroad, and the principal north and south thoroughfare was Marsalis Avenue, then called Grand Street. On November 1, 1887, $ 23,000 worth of lots were sold in the newly opened Marsalis Addition (Oak Cliff) before noon, and on

690-748: A population of 2,470, and secured a post office which operated until 1896. The community had four grocery stores, two meat markets, a hardware store, and a feed store. Businesses included the Texas Paper Mills Company (later Fleming and Sons), the Oak Cliff Planing Mill, the Oak Cliff Artesian Well Company, Patton's Medicinal Laboratories, and the Oak Cliff Ice and Refrigeration Company. A number of new elite residential areas developed by

759-541: A separate municipality which is an enclave of Dallas. The Dallas Streetcar is a 1.6-mile (2.6 km) modern-streetcar line connecting Oak Cliff with downtown Dallas. It opened in April 2015, and extensions are planned. In apprehension to the Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling in 1954, the city of Dallas resisted desegregating their schools with the help of federal judges such as Judge William H. Atwell ,

SECTION 10

#1732782889913

828-608: A series of failed attempts to restore reserves by issuing bonds and depreciating specie issued for legal tender , the Treasury negotiated a contract with the Morgan-Belmont Syndicate to restore confidence in the government's ability to maintain the convertibility of legal tender into gold. The full list of syndicate members was not made public, however the contract named Drexel, Morgan & Co ., A. Belmont & Co., J. S. Morgan & Co. , and N. M. Rothschild & Sons . The syndicate achieved its goals through

897-754: A state charter school operator, has the K-12 Oak Cliff campus. Oak Cliff has been home to a long list of musicians. When T-Bone Walker made his debut with Columbia in 1929, he lived in Oak Cliff, and recorded as Oak Cliff T-Bone. Edie Brickell 's second album included a song about life in Oak Cliff titled "Oak Cliff Bra". Other musicians from Oak Cliff include Michael Martin Murphey , rap artist MO3 Yella Beezy , Stevie Ray Vaughan , B. W. Stevenson , The D.O.C. , Ray Wylie Hubbard and Jimmie Vaughan . Actors Yvonne Craig (television's first Batgirl) and Stephen Tobolowsky lived in Oak Cliff. Oak Cliff

966-487: A vote in favor of annexation by eighteen votes. In April 1908, the Trinity River flooded its banks, rising to a height of 37.8 feet (11.5 m) by April 21; rains continued into May, finally raising the river's height to 51.3 feet (15.6 m). The only bridge remaining that connected Oak Cliff with Dallas after the flood was the Zang Boulevard Turnpike, an earthen fill with a single steel span across

1035-583: Is home to the Sour Grapes art collective, founded by Carlos Donjuan , with his brothers Arturo and Miguel in 2000. The collective has murals throughout the Dallas area. Former NBA Player and now Hall of Famer Dennis Rodman grew up in Oak Cliff. Omar Gonzalez , a defender for Toronto in Major League Soccer and the U.S. national team , was born and raised in Oak Cliff. Oak Cliff is

1104-511: Is in Oak Cliff. Rosemont Elementary School is located in North Oak Cliff. In 2015 of The Dallas Morning News wrote that it had "strong academics, passionate students and devoted parents" and that it "is considered a neighborhood gem in North Oak Cliff". The parents stated that principal Anna Brining had worked to make the school strong; in 2015 DISD notified Brining that her contract will not be renewed. In addition, Life School ,

1173-793: Is part of the Ex-Slave Narrative Collection enshrined in the Rare Book Room at the Library of Congress . Despite the erasure of significant homes and businesses by the construction of Clarendon Drive between 1942 and 1950 and R.L. Thornton Freeway in the late 1950s, the National Park Service recognized the high level of architectural integrity then present in the community by listing the Tenth Street Historic District on

1242-637: Is represented by four members of the Dallas City Council, out of a total of fourteen council members for the city as a whole. Using the boundaries described above, two of the council districts fall completely in Oak Cliff (Districts 1 and 4), while two others partially represent Oak Cliff (Districts 3 and 8). Oak Cliff is represented by two members of the Dallas County Commissioners Court. Both of these commissioners represent other areas of Dallas County, but Oak Cliff

1311-464: Is the setting of City Limit , the novel by Lantzee Miller is a coming-of-age story and metaphorical portrait of the beginning of Oak Cliff's recent rebirth and self redefinition. Panic of 1893 The Panic of 1893 has been traced to many causes, one of them pointing to Argentina; investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers . However, the 1890 wheat crop failure and

1380-561: Is within their district boundaries. Oak Cliff is represented by several members of the Texas Legislature. All of the representatives listed below represent portions of Oak Cliff. Oak Cliff is represented by two members of the Texas Senate. Senator Royce West represents most of Oak Cliff while a portion of west Oak Cliff is represented by Senator Nathan Johnson. In addition, the Oak Cliff area encompasses Cockrell Hill ,

1449-484: The Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s, the United States had experienced economic growth and expansion, but much of this expansion depended on high international commodity prices. Exacerbating the problems with international investments, wheat prices crashed in 1893. In particular, the opening of numerous mines in the western United States led to an oversupply of silver, leading to significant debate as to how much of

SECTION 20

#1732782889913

1518-560: The National Cordage Company (NCC), then the most actively traded stock, caused its lenders to call in their loans immediately, and the company went into bankruptcy receivership as a result. The company, a rope manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and

1587-609: The Northern Pacific Railway , the Union Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the West, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with

1656-865: The Pullman Strike . After their defeat in 1896, the Democrats did not regain control of any branch of the Federal Government until 1910 . A rarely talked-about effect is the Love Canal disaster. People who were earlier keen to invest in the Love Canal stopped doing so, which led to the abandonment of its construction. Ultimately the canal ended up being a large toxic waste repository, with severe negative environmental effects. Love Canal remains synonymous with environmental pollution and degradation. The Panic of 1893 affected many aspects of

1725-505: The Second World War is protected by the local historic overlay district . Recollections of longtime residents suggest that some areas included in both the local and national designations, while appropriate to the period of historic significance, were off limits to African Americans during the period of significance and even up until the final years of Jim Crow . Although the local and national districts were created to recognize

1794-544: The U.S. Treasury fell to a dangerously low level. This forced President Cleveland to borrow $ 65 million in gold from Wall Street banker J.P. Morgan and the Rothschild banking family of England , through what was known as the Morgan-Belmont Syndicate His party suffered enormous losses in the 1894 elections , largely being blamed for the downward spiral in the economy and the brutal crushing of

1863-482: The shipping industry , both by rail and maritime. It arrested the acquisition of ships and rolling stock and depressed shipping rates. The bad omen of investors switching from equity based stocks to constant return bonds in 1894 was mirrored in the corporate finance actions of railroads which reduced their acquisition of rolling stock . Railroad expansion including capital expenditures rose again in 1895, but slowed in 1897 during another economic trough. In 1893,

1932-476: The 1890s which drained the Treasury gold reserves, caused concern from both domestic and foreign investors that the U.S. would abandon the gold standard. This prompted further gold withdrawals and bond liquidations which exacerbated the deficit. By February 2, 1895, the Treasury's gold reserves fell to approximately $ 42 million, well below the $ 100 million level required by the Resumption Act of 1875 . After

2001-660: The Chief Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas . To combat the inevitability of desegregation of schools, Dallas, in 1961, initiated a "Stairstep Plan". The proposed plan stated that all DISD schools would begin desegregation one grade level per year, beginning with the first grade. DISD declared all of their schools desegregated in 1967, which was later found to be inherently false. In July 1971, it

2070-604: The Dallas Land and Loan Company had pushed the community's boundaries westward to Willomet Street. Oak Cliff's first mayor was Hugh Ewing. In 1891 the community's first newspaper, the Oak Cliff Sunday Weekly, was published by F. N. Oliver. Over the next three years Oak Cliff's development continued, but, during the depression of 1893, the demand for vacation resorts decreased, and the community's growth stagnated, forcing Marsalis into bankruptcy. Consequently,

2139-562: The National Register of Historic Places in 1994. The registration noted that “demolition, rather than new construction or major remodeling, has served as the neighborhood’s main adversary.” DART Blue Line , Red Line Oak Cliff Oak Cliff is an area of Dallas, Texas , United States that was formerly a separate town in Dallas County ; established in 1886 and annexed by Dallas in 1903, Oak Cliff has retained

Tenth Street Freedman's Town - Misplaced Pages Continue

2208-488: The Oak Cliff's black community contributing to approximately one-half of the city's unemployment population. As black people were known to be considered first for layoffs, a need for low-income housing quickly rose. As a result, 86% of Oak Cliff's black population was forced into inhabiting sub-standard housing, commonly located on what was considered as the most undesirable and unlivable parts of Dallas. Violence broke out in Oak Cliff between its black and white citizens over

2277-601: The Park Hotel was converted into the Oak Cliff College for Young Ladies. Another educational institution, the Patton Seminary, was established two years later by Dr. Edward G. Patton. By 1900 Oak Cliff was already no longer an elite residential and vacation community. Many of the lots once owned by the Dallas Land and Loan Company were subdivided by the Dallas and Oak Cliff Real Estate Company and sold to

2346-610: The Pullman Company was a railroad car company, this only increased the difficulty of acquiring rolling stock. The maritime industry of the United States did not escape the effects of the Panic of 1893. The total gross registered merchant marine tonnage employed in "foreign and coastwise trade and in the fisheries", as measured by the U.S. Census between 1888 and 1893, grew at a rate of about 2.74%. In 1894, U.S. gross tonnage decreased by 2.9%, and again in 1895 by 1.03%. In 1894,

2415-550: The South". The railroad ran special trains to Oak Cliff Park the home ground of the Dallas Hams. In reality, the railroad operated at ground level almost its entire course down Jefferson Boulevard and towards Lake Cliff; it only became slightly elevated as it crossed the Trinity River. This steam railway was continued for many years for commuters and pleasure seekers. Marsalis began two other development projects with

2484-775: The Treasury crisis and convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which he felt was mainly responsible for the economic crisis. As concern for the state of the economy deepened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, and caused bank runs . The credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in London combined with a drop in continental European trade caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The economic policies of President Benjamin Harrison have been characterized as

2553-597: The Trinity River from Nacogdoches County into Robertson County in December, 1843. A July, 1844, report by Peters Colony agent Ralph Barksdale confirms the presence of a mere three slaves in the West Trinity zone at the time of his 1844 survey, presumably those owned by George Leonard. By 1846, when William S. Beatty deeded ten acres of his 640-acre survey for a public cemetery west of the Trinity, four area settlers on

2622-648: The blues. On September 8, 1935, jazz saxophonist James Earl Clay was born at his parents' home on Cliff Street, directly behind the Greater El Bethel Missionary Baptist Church. Clay attended N.W. Harllee before going on to graduate from Lincoln High School in South Dallas . In 1937, former slave Mose Hursey told his life story to the Federal Writers Project at his home on Tenth Street. His narrative

2691-486: The city in 2003. The Dallas Independent School District operates district public schools. Zoned high schools within the Oak Cliff area: Optional high schools within the Oak Cliff area: In 2011 the district closed Maynard Jackson Middle School. Prior to summer 2011 the community often complained about poor conditions at the school. DISD rezoned the students to Kennedy Curry Middle School in southern Dallas . Zan Wesley Holmes Jr. Middle School, which opened in 2012,

2760-484: The community in 1887, when John Scarborough Armstrong and Thomas Lafayette Marsalis platted the town of Oak Cliff. Tenth Street Historic District may identify either a Dallas Landmark District or a National Register Historic District encompassing parts of the Tenth Street Freedman's Town. Only a portion of the original nucleus and subsequent expansion of the Tenth Street Freedman's Town prior to

2829-407: The concession stand at the theatre, said that Oswald came into the theater between 1:00 and 1:07 pm; he also claimed he sold Oswald popcorn at 1:15 p.m. Julia Postal later said that Burroughs initially told her the same thing although he later denied this. Theatre patron, Jack Davis, also corroborated Burroughs' time, claiming he observed Oswald in the theatre prior to 1:20 pm. Oak Cliff

Tenth Street Freedman's Town - Misplaced Pages Continue

2898-419: The destitute. Facing starvation, people chopped wood, broke rocks, and sewed by hand with needle and thread in exchange for food. In some cases, women resorted to prostitution to feed their families. To help the people of Detroit, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree launched his "Potato Patch Plan", which were community gardens for farming. President Grover Cleveland was blamed for the depression. Gold reserves stored in

2967-523: The district as roughly bounded by East Clarendon Drive on the south and southeast, South Fleming Avenue on the southwest, Interstate-35E on the west, East 8th Street on the north and the eastern ends of Church Street, East 9th Street and Plum Street on the east, where they dead-end into the old Corsicana Interurban right of way. The first African Americans to inhabit what is now known as Oak Cliff were likely between one and three slaves that accompanied George Lawan Leonard and his son, George S.C. Leonard, across

3036-459: The economy and thereby end deflation , which was forcing them to repay loans with increasingly expensive dollars. Mining interests sought the right to turn silver directly into money without a central minting institution. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, while falling short of the Free Silver movement's goals, required the U.S. government to buy millions of ounces of silver above what

3105-562: The following day, ninety-one lots were sold for $ 38,113. Figures published later in November gave the new suburb a population of 500. Marsalis developed the Oak Cliff Elevated Railway to provide the first transportation link to his new development, using a small shuttle train pulled by a "dummy" engine. The transportation system was modeled on one in the city of New York and was promoted as "the first elevated railway in

3174-644: The home of the Texas Theatre , located in West Jefferson Boulevard, where former resident Lee Harvey Oswald , the man suspected of killing U.S. President John F. Kennedy and shooting Dallas Police officer JD Tippit at 10th and Patton Streets, was arrested. The theater has appeared in many books and movies on the Kennedy assassination, including Oliver Stone 's 1991 film, JFK . On November 22, 1963, Warren "Butch" Burroughs, who ran

3243-544: The intent to promote Oak Cliff as a vacation resort. One was Oak Cliff Park, later called Marsalis Park and Zoo, a 150-acre (0.6 km ) park that included a two-mile (3 km)-long lake and a 2,000-seat pavilion in which dances and operas were held. Another was the Park Hotel, modeled after the Hotel del Coronado in San Diego, which included several mineral baths fed by artesian wells . Oak Cliff incorporated in 1890 with

3312-464: The issue at hand. The Dallas mayor at the time, Woodall Rodgers , was documented as criticizing Oak Cliff's black community for inciting the violence and not being accepting of their residential segregation. On April 2, 1957, a tornado ripped through Oak Cliff as part of the Early-April 1957 tornado outbreak sequence , killing 10 people and causing more than $ 1 million in damages. Oak Cliff

3381-523: The labor movement. Established in 1891 as a result of the Populist movement, the People's Party reached its height in the 1892 presidential election , when its ticket, consisting of James B. Weaver and James G. Field , won 8.5% of the popular vote and carried five states (Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nevada, and North Dakota), and the 1894 House of Representatives elections when it won nine seats. Built on

3450-602: The land between the burial ground and the creeks was unrestricted. W.J. Betterton bought the four acre tract from William Brown Miller in October, 1887. He extended Tenth Street across the width of the cemetery. A Black urban ownership class in Oak Cliff began with the purchase of lots by Anthony Boswell in January, 1888. Among those who bought lots in Miller's Four Acres before 1890 were trustees of Elizabeth Chapel C.M.E. Church and El Bethel Missionary Baptist Church. Black ownership

3519-567: The land into an elite residential area, which proved to be a success by the end of 1887, with sales surpassing $ 60,000. After a disagreement between the partners, Marsalis secured complete control over Oak Cliff's development. Armstrong would go on to create his own elite residential development on the north side of Dallas, known as Highland Park . According to the first plat filed, the original township of Oak Cliff extended as far north as First Street, later named Colorado Boulevard just north of Lake Cliff, then known as Spring Lake, and as far south as

SECTION 50

#1732782889913

3588-707: The longest concrete bridge in the world. (This latter designation was later disputed as a publicity stunt.) In 1909, a disastrous fire occurred in Oak Cliff, consuming fourteen blocks of residences, including the Briggs Sanitorium . In April 1921, the Ku Klux Klan declared a chapter within Dallas, making themselves known by not only beating and branding a local black hotel elevator operator, but by also parading in downtown Dallas with nearly 800 hooded Klansmen in attendance. The Dallas chapter, known as “Klavern 66”, moved its meeting hall into Oak Cliff due to

3657-628: The loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result. As a result of the panic, stock prices declined. Five hundred banks closed, 15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation. The unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to help feed

3726-473: The majority of the student population would integrate into schools where their race was a minority by offering free transportation by bus. For the next few decades Oak Cliff schools, along with those in South Dallas, became the focus of a long-running and bitter court battle over desegregation , one overseen by federal judge Barefoot Sanders . All of DISD's schools were officially declared desegregated by

3795-583: The middle and working classes, a trend which lasted well into the early 1900s. The census of 1900 reported Oak Cliff's population as 3,640. In 1902, an interurban electric streetcar line controlled by the Northern Texas Traction Company , was constructed passing through Oak Cliff, and connected Dallas to Fort Worth. This line discontinued service in the late 1930s. Smaller residential streetcar service ran throughout Oak Cliff's neighborhoods, spanning over 20 miles (32 km). Known as

3864-499: The north property line of those lots facing south on East 8th Street, thence east along said property line to its intersection with Hutchins Road, thence south along the former Corsicana Interurban right of way to East Clarendon Drive, thence west a short distance along East Clarendon Drive, from which point the boundary jogged south, then west, then north to include the former site of Cuney Street before returning to East Clarendon Drive. The National Register of Historic Places defines

3933-487: The rate for a bushel of wheat by rail dropped from 14.70¢ in 1893 to 12.88¢. This rate continued to decrease, reaching a terminal rate in 1901 of 9.92¢ and never reached 12 cents between 1898 and 1910. Between 1893 and 1894, average shipping rates by lake or canal per wheat bushel decreased by almost 2 cents, from 6.33¢ to 4.44¢. Rates on the transatlantic crossing from New York City to Liverpool also decreased, from 2 and 3/8 pence to 1 and 15/16 pence, but this reflected

4002-646: The river channel, slightly to the north of the present Houston Street Viaduct . About this time, George B. Dealey , publisher of the Morning News, returned from a trip to Kansas City with the idea of securing for Dallas an intracity causeway similar to the one there. From his proposal sprang the Houston Street Viaduct (originally named the Oak Cliff Viaduct), begun October 24, 1910, and opened to traffic February 22, 1912, acclaimed as

4071-459: The same historic community, the boundaries of the two designations differ slightly from each other. When Dallas adopted the city's twelfth historic district in 1993, the historic overlay was bounded by East Clarendon Drive on the south and southeast, South Fleming Avenue on the southwest, Interstate-35E on the west, East 8th Street on the north from the intersection with I-35E east to the intersection with Denley Drive, thence north along Denley Drive to

4140-524: The silver should be coined into money (see below). During the 1880s, American railroads experienced what might today be called a " bubble ": investors flocked to railroads, and they were greatly over-built. One of the first clear signs of trouble came on 20 February 1893, twelve days before the inauguration of U.S. President Grover Cleveland , with the appointment of receivers for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad , which had greatly overextended itself. Upon taking office, Cleveland dealt directly with

4209-441: The south. There are no officially recognized or universally accepted boundaries for what constitutes Oak Cliff. Oak Cliff originated on December 15, 1886, when John S. Armstrong and Thomas L. Marsalis bought a farm of 320 acres (1.3 km ) on the west side of the Trinity River for $ 8,000. The farm was subdivided into 20-acre (81,000 m ) blocks, and the plat of the new town made. Armstrong and Marsalis began to develop

SECTION 60

#1732782889913

4278-521: The southern end along what became Tenth Street. Upon Emancipation in 1865, freedmen streamed into Texas cities from across the South. Some sought family members who had been moved west as the Civil War advanced. All sought opportunity. Arch Miller, who came to Texas as William Brown Miller's slave in 1847, was among those who settled on Cedar Creek south of the "Negro Burial Ground." Sales in the planned city of Oak Cliff began in November, 1887, but not for African Americans. Lying outside of Original Oak Cliff,

4347-403: The three slaves enumerated by Barksdale were those who came with George Leonard near the end of 1843. Conversely, it seems unlikely that Hord, being the last of the four slave holders to arrive, would have brought the first African Americans into the vicinity of William S. Beatty's Robertson County survey. Beatty stipulated that his burial ground “remain forever open to all.” Slaves were buried in

4416-424: The total railroad mileage in the U.S. was 176,803.6 miles. In 1894 and 1895, railroads only expanded 4,196.4 miles, although 100,000 miles of rail was added from 1878 to 1896. In 1893, the year following the panic, one fourth of all rail mileage went into receivership. The U.S. Census placed this value at close to $ 1.8 billion (not adjusted for inflation), the largest amount recorded between 1876 and 1910. This

4485-424: The west side of the Trinity owned “Negro Property” valued at $ 4,310, twelve slaves in all. Tax records indicate that David Cameron and William H. Hord owned four slaves each. George Lawan Leonard owned three slaves and Aaron Overton owned a single slave. Of these four, George Leonard was the first to arrive. Cameron and Overton arrived in 1844, followed by Hord in 1845. It stands to reason, then, that some if not all of

4554-495: Was discovered that out of the total 180 DISD schools, 159 schools met the criteria to be classified as a one-race school (90% of the student population being either Black, Mexican American or Anglo). At the conclusion of the case in August 1971, Judge William M. Taylor of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas , ruled in favor of a majority-to-minority transfer program. The program stated that all DISD students who attended schools where their race made up

4623-558: Was largely confined to the Four Acres until the Panic of 1893 . In their haste to divest, investors sold off unimproved lots to anyone with means. Oak Cliff's calamity was Tenth Street's opportunity. Black Tenth Street grew west into Original Oak Cliff, bringing a vibrant mix of businesses and residences that reached a zenith during the Jazz Age . The first “colored” public school on the site of N.W. Harllee came in 1903. Alumni include 1960 Olympic gold medal decathlete Rafer Johnson and guitarist Aaron Thibeaux “T-Bone” Walker , who electrified

4692-420: Was over $ 1 billion (also not adjusted for inflation) more than the next largest amount, in 1884. In 1894, the U.S. Army intervened during a strike in Chicago to prevent property damage. The Pullman Strike began at the Pullman Company in Chicago after Pullman refused to either lower rent in the company town or raise wages for its workers due to increased economic pressure from the Panic of 1893. Since

4761-457: Was required by the 1878 Bland–Allison Act (driving up the price of silver and pleasing silver miners). People attempted to redeem silver notes for gold. Ultimately, the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and U.S. notes could no longer be redeemed for gold. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high-interest payments. Rumors regarding financial distress at

#912087