Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture
77-455: Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture Terramare , terramara , or terremare
154-513: A burial site located in the western industrial zone of Varna , approximately 4 km from the city centre, internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site. The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, found in 2019 in Durankulak , near Varna is another important example. Other signs of early metals are found from
231-659: A coherent archaeological culture in its later phase. The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium, with early examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c. 28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around
308-410: A ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue . Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep . Cold-working processes, in which the product's shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes, while the product is cold, can increase the strength of
385-492: A kind of Bell Beaker civilization of continental scale". The Bell Beaker artefacts (at least in their early phase) are not distributed across a contiguous area, as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into
462-867: A large number of stone moulds, needed to obtain the bronze objects. There are also objects of bone and wood , besides pottery (both coarse and fine), amber , and glass paste . Small clay figures, chiefly of animals (though human figures are found at Castellazzo), are interesting as being practically the earliest specimens of plastic art found in Italy. The occupations of the Terramare people as compared with their Neolithic predecessors may be inferred with comparative certainty. They remained hunters, but also had domesticated animals; they were fairly skilful metallurgists , casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay; they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans , grapes , wheat , and flax . According to William Ridgeway
539-413: A liquid bath. Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic structure of metals using metallography , a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby . In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or electron microscope , and
616-401: A major concern. Cast irons, including ductile iron , are also part of the iron-carbon system. Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling. Other engineering metals include aluminium , chromium , copper , magnesium , nickel , titanium , zinc , and silicon . These metals are most often used as alloys with
693-646: A period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic . In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper , arsenical bronze and gold , long-distance exchange networks, archery , specific types of ornamentation, and (presumably) shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas, as well as social stratification and
770-670: A prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes, Beaker 'folk' were suggested to be originally bronze traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic or early Chalcolithic cultures, creating local styles. Close analysis of
847-473: A series of drought periods led to a deep economic crisis, famine, and consequently the disruption of the political order, which caused the collapse of society . Around 1150 BC the Terramare were completely abandoned, with no settlements replacing them. The plains, especially in the area of Emilia, were abandoned for several centuries, and only in the Roman era did they regain the density of population reached during
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#1732765843416924-585: A similar character with Brizio's theory. Luigi Pigorini (1842–1925) proposed that a population derived from the Terramare culture was a dominant component of the Proto-Villanovan culture —especially in its northern and Campanian phases and the Terramare culture has been an Indo-European-speaking population, the ancestors of the Italici , i.e. the Italic -speaking peoples. Pigorini also attributed to
1001-627: A smelted copper axe dating from 5,500 BC, belonging to the Vinča culture . The Balkans and adjacent Carpathian region were the location of major Chalcolithic cultures including Vinča , Varna , Karanovo , Gumelnița and Hamangia , which are often grouped together under the name of ' Old Europe '. With the Carpatho-Balkan region described as the 'earliest metallurgical province in Eurasia', its scale and technical quality of metal production in
1078-521: A study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations. The Bell Beaker culture was partly preceded by and contemporaneous with the Corded Ware culture , and in north-central Europe preceded by the Funnelbeaker culture . The name Glockenbecher was coined for its distinctive style of beakers by Paul Reinecke in 1900. The term's English translation Bell Beaker
1155-579: A superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze . This represented a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age . The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age . The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in
1232-505: Is a technology complex mainly of the central Po valley , in Emilia , Northern Italy , dating to the Middle and Late Bronze Age c. 1700–1150 BC. It takes its name from the "black earth" residue of settlement mounds. Terramare is from terra marna , "marl-earth", where marl is a lacustrine deposit. It may be any color but in agricultural lands it is most typically black, giving rise to
1309-401: Is a chemical surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold , silver , chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. This is done by selecting the coating material electrolyte solution, which is the material that is going to coat the workpiece (gold, silver, zinc). There needs to be two electrodes of different materials: one the same material as
1386-443: Is an industrial coating process that consists of a heat source (flame or other) and a coating material that can be in a powder or wire form, which is melted then sprayed on the surface of the material being treated at a high velocity. The spray treating process is known by many different names such as HVOF (High Velocity Oxygen Fuel), plasma spray, flame spray, arc spray and metalizing. Electroless deposition (ED) or electroless plating
1463-708: Is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. Much effort has been placed on understanding iron –carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons . Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor corrosion are
1540-455: Is defined as the autocatalytic process through which metals and metal alloys are deposited onto nonconductive surfaces. These nonconductive surfaces include plastics, ceramics, and glass etc., which can then become decorative, anti-corrosive, and conductive depending on their final functions. Electroless deposition is a chemical processes that create metal coatings on various materials by autocatalytic chemical reduction of metal cations in
1617-654: Is found in the Balkans and Carpathian Mountains , as evidenced by findings of objects made by metal casting and smelting dated to around 6000-5000 BC. Certain metals, such as tin, lead, and copper can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace in a process known as smelting. The first evidence of copper smelting, dating from the 6th millennium BC, has been found at archaeological sites in Majdanpek , Jarmovac and Pločnik , in present-day Serbia . The site of Pločnik has produced
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#17327658434161694-504: Is known as a metallurgist. The science of metallurgy is further subdivided into two broad categories: chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy . Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals. Subjects of study in chemical metallurgy include mineral processing , the extraction of metals , thermodynamics , electrochemistry , and chemical degradation ( corrosion ). In contrast, physical metallurgy focuses on
1771-508: Is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions. British and American archaeology since the 1960s have been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of "Bell Beaker Folk" lost ground. A theory of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in the mid-1970s. Under the "pots, not people" theory, the Beaker culture
1848-545: Is the more common one in the United Kingdom . The / ˈ m ɛ t əl ɜːr dʒ i / pronunciation is the more common one in the United States US and is the first-listed variant in various American dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster Collegiate and American Heritage . The earliest metal employed by humans appears to be gold , which can be found " native ". Small amounts of natural gold, dating to
1925-608: The Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon , is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age , arising from around 2800 BC. Bell Beaker culture lasted in Britain from c. 2450 BC, with the appearance of single burial graves, until as late as 1800 BC, but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it
2002-1071: The Etruscans . Bell Beaker culture Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Bell Beaker culture , also known as
2079-641: The Italici a tradition of lake dwellings, modified in Italy into Terramare-style pile dwelling on dry land. More recently, Italian archeologist Andrea Cardarelli has proposed re-evaluations of contemporaneous Greek accounts, such as that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus , and to link the Terramare culture to the Pelasgians whom the Greeks generally equated with the Tyrrhenians and specifically, therefore,
2156-634: The Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy , probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica . The enclave established in southern Brittany
2233-405: The migrationism vs. diffusionism debate in 20th-century archaeology , variously described as due to migration, possibly of small groups of warriors, craftsmen or traders, or due to the diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record , along with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as
2310-403: The science and the technology of metals, including the production of metals and the engineering of metal components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers. Metallurgy is distinct from the craft of metalworking . Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to how medicine relies on medical science for technical advancement. A specialist practitioner of metallurgy
2387-467: The "black earth" identification of it. The population of the terramare sites is called the terramaricoli . The sites were excavated exhaustively in 1860–1910. These sites prior to the second half of the 19th century were commonly believed to have been used for Gallic and Roman sepulchral rites. They were called terramare and marnier by the farmers of the region, who mined the soil for fertilizer. Scientific study began with Bartolomeo Gastaldi in 1860. He
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2464-527: The 6th–5th millennia BC totally overshadowed that of any other contemporary production centre. The earliest documented use of lead (possibly native or smelted) in the Near East dates from the 6th millennium BC, is from the late Neolithic settlements of Yarim Tepe and Arpachiyah in Iraq . The artifacts suggest that lead smelting may have predated copper smelting. Metallurgy of lead has also been found in
2541-664: The Balkans during the same period. Copper smelting is documented at sites in Anatolia and at the site of Tal-i Iblis in southeastern Iran from c. 5000 BC. Copper smelting is first documented in the Delta region of northern Egypt in c. 4000 BC, associated with the Maadi culture . This represents the earliest evidence for smelting in Africa. The Varna Necropolis , Bulgaria , is
2618-412: The Bell Beaker "package", the explanation for the Beaker culture until the last decades of the 20th century was to interpret it as the migration of one group of people across Europe. Gordon Childe interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted
2695-534: The Bell Beaker culture was intrusive to southern Germany, and existed contemporarily with the local Corded Ware culture . The burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites appears to be intrusive to Western Europe, from Central Europe. Individual inhumations, often under tumuli with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement
2772-724: The Bell Beaker zone. This overturns a previous conviction that single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transmitted westwards along the exchange networks from the Rhine to the Loire, and northwards across the English Channel to Britain. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in
2849-634: The Carpathian Basin, the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vučedol culture ( c. 3000 –2200 BC), which had evolved partly from the Yamnaya culture (c. 3300–2600 BC). In contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the Carpathian Basin during the first half of the third millennium was the shaft-hole axe. Here, Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as
2926-471: The LBA, we see a higher frequency of sites occupying a larger extension and a scant presence of small-size settlements, perhaps due to a marked tendency towards concentration of population. This trend seems to be accentuated during the advanced LBA, when the overall number of settlements decreases, with a tendency towards concentration in larger-size settlements and probable subordination of the smaller settlements to
3003-468: The Late Bronze Age many sites have been abandoned and the ones that were not are larger, up to 60 ha (150 acres). The remains discovered may be briefly summarized. Stone objects are few. Of bronze (the chief material) axes , daggers , swords , razors , and knives are found, as also minor implements, such as sickles , needles , pins , brooches , etc. Also remarkable is the finding of
3080-592: The Ligures, at some early point, took to erecting pile dwellings, although why they should have abandoned their previously unprotected hut-settlements for elaborate fortifications is unclear. While Brizio did not envision invading peoples until long after the Terramare period, the pile dwellings, ramparts and moats at Terramare sites have usually seemed more akin to military defenses, than the prevention of inundation during regular flooding; for instance, Terramare buildings usually stood on hills. There are other difficulties of
3157-543: The MB2 (1550–1450 BC) is worthy of note. There are areas, coinciding with those that have been most extensively investigated, in which the inhabited settlements in this phase are no more than 2 kilometres one from the other. It can therefore be supposed that the entire territory was occupied by a tight-knit network of villages, a polycentric system with settlements generally covering between 1 and 2 hectares and occupied by up to 250/260 inhabitants (about 125 per hectare). At that point,
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3234-410: The Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. While Bell Beaker ( Glockenbecher ) was introduced as a term for the artefact type at the beginning of the 20th century, recognition of an archaeological Bell Beaker culture has long been controversial. Its spread has been one of the central questions of
3311-668: The Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background." The initial moves from
3388-677: The Terramare period. It has been suggested that the memory of the fate of the Terramare culture may have lasted for centuries, until it was recorded by Dionysius of Halicarnassus , in his first book on the Roman Antiquities, as the fate of the Pelasgians . In his record the Pelasgians occupied the Po Valley up to two generations before the Trojan War , but were forced, by a series of famines of which they could not understand
3465-424: The artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" ( Glockenbecherleute ) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" ( Glockenbecher-Phänomen ) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture". Heyd (1998) concluded that
3542-432: The bronze tools associated with beaker use suggests an early Iberian source for the copper, followed subsequently by Central European and Bohemian ores. Metallurgist Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements , their inter-metallic compounds , and their mixtures, which are known as alloys . Metallurgy encompasses both
3619-416: The coating material and one that is receiving the coating material. Two electrodes are electrically charged and the coating material is stuck to the work piece. It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance. It is also used to make inexpensive metals look like the more expensive ones (gold, silver). Shot peening is a cold working process used to finish metal parts. In
3696-593: The dead were given a burial : further investigation, however, of the cemeteries shows that both burial and cremation were practiced, with cremated remains placed in ossuaries ; practically no objects were found in the urns . Cremation may have been a later introduction. For the early phases of the Middle Bronze Age it is plausible to think of the Terramare in terms of a polycentric settlement system, with apparently no substantial differences between one village and another. The density of dwellings rose, and in
3773-475: The dimension of the settlements began to vary. Until the MB2, their size did not normally exceed two hectares, but during the MB3 (1450–1350 BC), there was a substantial increase in the surface area occupied by certain of these settlements, while others remained limited in size or disappeared altogether. This tendency was consolidated in the LBA. Several of these settlements cover an area of up to 20 hectares. The size of
3850-400: The embankments and ditches can reach remarkable proportions, some exceeding 30 metres in width. For the more advanced phase of the Middle Bronze Age, and above all during the Late Bronze Age (1350–1150 BC), we can hypothesise a greater degree of diversified territorial organisation, including centres which are larger and tending towards hegemony, adjacent to smaller sites. In certain areas during
3927-409: The emergence of regional elites. A wide range of regional diversity persists within the widespread late Beaker culture, particularly in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile, and local ceramic wares ( Begleitkeramik ). Nonetheless, according to Lemercier (2018) the mature phase of the Beaker culture represents "the appearance of
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#17327658434164004-458: The first to perceive that the settlements were prehistoric. Starting from Gaetano Chierici's theory that the pile dwellings further north represented an ancestral Roman population, Pigorini developed a theory of Indo-European settlement of Italy from the north. The Terramare, in spite of local differences, is of typical form; each settlement is trapezoidal, with streets arranged in a quadrangular pattern. Some houses are built upon piles even though
4081-619: The highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy". Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically , or electrolytically . Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of
4158-402: The image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history. Crystallography , often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons , is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist. Crystallography allows identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate
4235-508: The joining of metals (including welding , brazing , and soldering ). Emerging areas for metallurgists include nanotechnology , superconductors , composites , biomedical materials , electronic materials (semiconductors) and surface engineering . Metallurgy derives from the Ancient Greek μεταλλουργός , metallourgós , "worker in metal", from μέταλλον , métallon , "mine, metal" + ἔργον , érgon , "work" The word
4312-527: The larger ones. Around 1200 BC a serious crisis began for the Terramare culture that within a few years led to the abandonment of all the settlements; the reasons for this crisis, roughly contemporaneous with the Late Bronze Age collapse in the eastern Mediterranean, are still not entirely clear. It seems possible that in the face of an incipient overpopulation (between 150,000 and 200,000 individuals were calculated) and depletion of natural resources,
4389-560: The late Paleolithic period, 40,000 BC, have been found in Spanish caves. Silver , copper , tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Early cold metallurgy, using native copper not melted from mineral has been documented at sites in Anatolia and at the site of Tell Maghzaliyah in Iraq , dating from the 7th/6th millennia BC. The earliest archaeological support of smelting (hot metallurgy) in Eurasia
4466-427: The mechanical properties of metals, the physical properties of metals, and the physical performance of metals. Topics studied in physical metallurgy include crystallography , material characterization , mechanical metallurgy, phase transformations , and failure mechanisms . Historically, metallurgy has predominately focused on the production of metals. Metal production begins with the processing of ores to extract
4543-917: The metal, and includes the mixture of metals to make alloys . Metal alloys are often a blend of at least two different metallic elements. However, non-metallic elements are often added to alloys in order to achieve properties suitable for an application. The study of metal production is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (also known as black metallurgy ) and non-ferrous metallurgy , also known as colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron , while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95% of world metal production. Modern metallurgists work in both emerging and traditional areas as part of an interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists and other engineers. Some traditional areas include mineral processing, metal production, heat treatment, failure analysis , and
4620-553: The noted exception of silicon, which is not a metal. Other forms include: In production engineering , metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves production of alloys, shaping, heat treatment and surface treatment of product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties, such as cost, weight , strength , toughness , hardness , corrosion , fatigue resistance and performance in temperature extremes. To achieve this goal,
4697-512: The operating environment must be carefully considered. Determining the hardness of the metal using the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness scales is a commonly used practice that helps better understand the metal's elasticity and plasticity for different applications and production processes. In a saltwater environment, most ferrous metals and some non-ferrous alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may undergo
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#17327658434164774-482: The ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching . Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution
4851-460: The period 2400–2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here, the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into
4928-402: The piece being treated. The compression stress in the surface of the material strengthens the part and makes it more resistant to fatigue failure, stress failures, corrosion failure, and cracking. Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings. Thermal spraying, also known as a spray welding process,
5005-654: The polypod cup. These "common ware" types of pottery then spread in association with the classic bell beaker. The Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone ( c. 3100 – c. 2350 BC ), forming a contact zone with the Bell Beaker culture. From there, the Bell Beaker culture spread further into Eastern Europe, replacing the Corded Ware culture up to the Vistula (Poland). A review in 2014 revealed that single burial, communal burial, and reuse of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout
5082-445: The process of shot peening, small round shot is blasted against the surface of the part to be finished. This process is used to prolong the product life of the part, prevent stress corrosion failures, and also prevent fatigue. The shot leaves small dimples on the surface like a peen hammer does, which cause compression stress under the dimple. As the shot media strikes the material over and over, it forms many overlapping dimples throughout
5159-666: The product by a process called work hardening . Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape. Metals can be heat-treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness and resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation strengthening , quenching, and tempering: Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what are known as thermo-mechanical treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials. These processes are common to high-alloy special steels, superalloys and titanium alloys. Electroplating
5236-476: The reason, nor to which find a solution, to leave their once-fertile land and move to the south, where they merged with the Aborigines. Significant differences of opinion have arisen as to the origin and ethnographic relations of the Terramare population. Edoardo Brizio , in his Epoca preistorica (1898), advanced a theory that the Terramare population had been the original Ligurians . Brizio believed that
5313-787: The success of the Philistines . Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East , ancient Iran , ancient Egypt , ancient Nubia , and Anatolia in present-day Turkey , Ancient Nok , Carthage , the Celts , Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe , medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China , ancient and medieval India , ancient and medieval Japan , amongst others. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola , De re metallica , describes
5390-568: The third millennium BC in Palmela , Portugal, Los Millares , Spain, and Stonehenge , United Kingdom. The precise beginnings, however, have not be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. In approximately 1900 BC, ancient iron smelting sites existed in Tamil Nadu . In the Near East , about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin,
5467-454: The village is entirely on dry land. There is currently no commonly accepted explanation for the piles. The whole is protected by an earthwork strengthened on the inside by buttresses, and encircled by a wide moat supplied with running water. In all over 60 villages are known, almost entirely from Emilia . In the Middle Bronze Age they are no larger than 2 ha (4.9 acres) placed at an average density of 1 per 25 km (9.7 sq mi). In
5544-405: Was introduced by John Abercromby in 1904. In its early phase, the Bell Beaker culture can be seen as the western contemporary of the Corded Ware culture of Central Europe. From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, into the Corded Ware horizon. In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland , a sequence occurs from Corded Ware to Bell Beaker. This period marks
5621-533: Was investigating peat bogs and old lake sites in north Italy but did some investigations of the marnier, recognizing them finally as habitation, not funerary, sites similar to the pile dwellings further north. His studies attracted the attention of Pellegrino Strobel and his 18-year-old assistant, Luigi Pigorini . In 1862 they wrote a piece concerning the Castione di Marchesi in Parma , a Terramare site. They were
5698-731: Was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire , and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine . This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in c. 2600 BC. Another expansion brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In
5775-434: Was originally an alchemist 's term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending -urgy signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 Encyclopædia Britannica . In the late 19th century, metallurgy's definition was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English , the / m ɛ ˈ t æ l ər dʒ i / pronunciation
5852-430: Was seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious beliefs, as well as methods of copper , bronze , and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons, and stone wrist-guards ) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of
5929-491: Was succeeded by the Únětice culture . The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions of Iberia and stretching eastward to the Danubian plains , and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland , and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa . The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and
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