128-552: Teseo (" Theseus ", HWV 9; Italian pronunciation: [teˈzɛo] ) is an opera seria with music by George Frideric Handel , the only Handel opera that is in five acts. The Italian -language libretto was by Nicola Francesco Haym , after Philippe Quinault 's Thésée . It was Handel's third London opera, intended to follow the success of Rinaldo after the unpopular Il pastor fido . First performed on 10 January 1713, Teseo featured "magical" effects such as flying dragons, transformation scenes and apparitions and had
256-521: A National Arts Centre (NAC) production in Ottawa directed by Frank Corsaro . The performance, with Mario Bernardi conducting the NAC Orchestra , was applauded by Montreal Gazette critic Eric McLean for its fine music making and its displays of "architectural and sartorial splendour". Eighteen months later, on 19 January 1984 Bernardi and Corsaro, with Horne, Ramey and Benita Valente from
384-534: A black cloud descends to envelop Armida and Almirena, and they are borne away. Rinaldo mourns the loss of his loved one. When Goffredo and Eustazio arrive they comfort Rinaldo, and propose they visit a Christian magician who may have the power to save Almirena. Rinaldo, left alone, prays for strength. A sea shore. As Goffredo, Eustazio and Rinaldo near the magician's lair, a beautiful woman calls from her boat, promising Rinaldo that she can take him to Almirena. Two mermaids sing of love's delights, and urge Rinaldo to go in
512-521: A black sail, promising to his father, Aegeus, that if successful he would return with a white sail. Like the others, Theseus was stripped of his weapons when they sailed. On his arrival in Crete, Ariadne , King Minos' daughter, fell in love with Theseus and, on the advice of Daedalus, gave him a ball of thread (a clew), so he could find his way out of the Labyrinth. That night, Ariadne escorted Theseus to
640-563: A cast of notable Italian opera singers. It was a success with London audiences, receiving thirteen performances even though the stage machinery for the "magical" effects broke down, and would have received more performances had not one of the theatre's managers run away with the box office receipts. The opera was premiered at the Queen's Theatre in the Haymarket on 10 January 1713. It received an additional 12 performances through 16 May 1713,
768-449: A chorus of reconciliation. The opera was frequently revised, most particularly in 1717 and in 1731; modern performances are usually a conflation of the versions available. Up to and including 1717, these changes had no significant effect on the plot. In the 1731 version, however, in act 2 Armida imitates Almirena's voice rather than assuming her appearance, and Argante declares his love to Almirena's portrait rather than to her face. In act 3
896-550: A commission to write an Italian opera for the Queen's Theatre in the Haymarket (it became the "King's Theatre" after King George I's accession in 1714). This theatre, designed and built by Sir John Vanbrugh , had become London's main opera house; its manager, Aaron Hill, intended to mount the first Italian opera written specifically for London and had engaged an all-Italian company for the 1710–11 opera season. Hill employed an Italian poet and language teacher, Giacomo Rossi, to write
1024-589: A complete score of the 1731 version. The libretto was published in London by the Queen's Theatre in February 1711, to coincide with the premiere, with Hill's English translation. Revised versions followed in 1717 and 1731 to reflect the changes introduced in those years; Rossi is believed to have prepared the Italian additions and revisions, with the 1731 English credited to "Mr. Humphreys". Feind's German versions of
1152-408: A craze in London for Italian opera seria, a form focused overwhelmingly on solo arias for the star virtuoso singers. Rinaldo , a "magic" opera featuring enchantments, sorceresses and scenic ingenuity, had been followed by Il Pastor Fido , a shorter and simpler opera, which was not a success with London audiences at its first performances. Therefore, Handel returned to the "magic" form with Teseo , for
1280-852: A cult of Aphrodite ('Aphrodite of all the People') on the southern slope of the Acropolis. Plutarch 's Life of Theseus makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus's escape, and his romantic involvement with and betrayal of Ariadne , daughter of King Minos . Plutarch's avowed purpose is to construct a life that parallels the Life of Romulus , the founding myth of Rome. Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, include Pherecydes (mid-fifth century BC), Demon (c. 400 BC), Philochorus , and Cleidemus (both fourth century BC). As
1408-553: A fury. A mountainside, at the magician's cavern. Goffredo and Eustazio are told by the Magician that Almirena is being held captive in Armida's palace at the mountain-top. Ignoring the magician's warning that they will need special powers, the pair set off for the palace but are quickly driven back by Armida's monsters. The magician then gives them magic wands that transcend Armida's power, and they set off again. This time they overcome
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#17327982120741536-514: A genre was still not clearly defined; in Hamburg the term Singspiel ("song-play") rather than opera described music dramas that combined elements of French and Italian opera, often with passages of spoken German dialogue. The music was, in the words of historian Donald Jay Grout , "tinged with the serious, heavy formality of Lutheran Germany". The first of Handel's early works in the German style
1664-466: A great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous , since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus, in an old tradition, chose Helen , and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone , even though she was already married to Hades , king of the underworld. They left Helen with Theseus's mother, Aethra at Aphidna , whence she
1792-639: A grown man, the hero Teseo is fighting on behalf of Athens, his identity as the king's son unknown to himself or others. Teseo is engaged in battle against Athens' foes as the opera begins. Princess Agilea, the ward of King Egeo, is concerned for Teseo's safety, as she confides to her companion the young maiden Clizia, for Agilea has fallen hopelessly in love with Teseo. Clizia has a boyfriend, Arcane, whom she promises to love always, but when she asks him to find out what he can about Teseo's safety, he becomes jealous. The Athenians have been victorious in battle, and King Egeo declares that his announced marriage to Medea,
1920-437: A herald announces the approach of Argante from the city. Eustazio surmises that the king fears defeat; this seems to be confirmed when Argante, after a grandiose entrance, requests a three-day truce to which Goffredo graciously assents. After Goffredo leaves, Argante ponders his love for Armida, the Queen of Damascus who is also a powerful sorceress, and considers the help her powers might bring him. As he muses, Armida arrives from
2048-414: A huge rock and told Aethra that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were heroic enough, and take the tokens for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. In Athens, Aegeus was joined by Medea , who had left Corinth after slaughtering the children she had borne to Jason , and had taken Aegeus as her new consort. Thus Theseus was raised in his mother's land. When Theseus grew up to be
2176-473: A libretto based on a scenario that Hill prepared himself. As his subject Hill chose Gerusalemme liberata , an epic of the First Crusade by the 16th-century Italian poet Torquato Tasso ; the opera was called Rinaldo , after its main protagonist. Hill was determined to exploit to the full the opportunities for lavish spectacle afforded by the theatre's machinery; his aim, according to Dean and Knapp,
2304-546: A mark of success at those times. The singers included the castratos Valeriano Pellegrini and Valentino Urbani . Between 1713 and 1984, there were only two revivals, the first being the revival under Fritz Lehmann in Göttingen on 29 June 1947. As with all Baroque opera seria, Teseo went unperformed for many years, but with the revival of interest in Baroque music and historically informed musical performance since
2432-642: A notice put into a London newspaper on 24 January: 'This present Saturday...the Opera of Theseus by Mr. Hendel will be represented in its Perfection, that is to say with all the Scenes, Decorations, Flights, and Machines. The Performers are much concerned that they did not give the Nobility and Gentry all the satisfaction they could have wished, when they represented it on Wednesday, having been hindered by some unforeseen Accidents at that time insurmountable. Teseo has
2560-617: A result of which Rinaldo was not staged anywhere for two hundred years. The first 20th-century production of Rinaldo which can be specifically verified was a performance in London, in February 1933, by pupils of the Hammersmith Day Continuation School, though Dean and Knapp mention a shortened version, in Czech, at the Prague Conservatory in 1923. The first modern professional performance
2688-589: A rich orchestration, with the usual strings, oboes, bassoon and continuo instruments of Handel's opera orchestra augmented by flutes and trumpets. The singer Elisabetta Pilotti-Schiavonetti in the role of Medea, who specialised in playing sorceresses, and for whom Handel had written the similar part of Armida in Rinaldo and later the role of Melissa in Amadigi di Gaula was the star of the show, and Handel's music distinguishes between her vengeful character and that of
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#17327982120742816-470: A sacrifice to Zeus if Theseus were successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor, Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children. When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized
2944-403: A scenario provided by Aaron Hill , and the work was first performed at the Queen's Theatre in London's Haymarket on 24 February 1711. The story of love, war and redemption, set at the time of the First Crusade , is loosely based on Torquato Tasso 's epic poem Gerusalemme liberata ("Jerusalem Delivered"), and its staging involved many original and vivid effects. It was a great success with
3072-479: A sorceress, is now no longer suitable for such a mighty sovereign as himself and he will take Princess Agilea as his bride. Agilea bewails her cruel fate, having no wish to be a Queen, but to be allowed to marry the man she loves, Teseo. Medea is furious at the humiliation caused to her by the King's rejection; she is somewhat mollified when the King comes to her and suggests she marry the hero Teseo instead of him as she
3200-703: A special mention for Valente's "plaintive and affecting" rendering of the popular aria "Lascia ch'io pianga". But, says Henahan, "the loudest cheers of the night went at last to the choreographer, Eugene Collins, and an incredibly nimble corps of tumbling warriors". After ten performances at the Metropolitan Opera House the production was taken in May to Washington, D.C. , and toured in the US before returning to New York in June for several outdoor performances. From
3328-447: A struggle for supremacy, Jerusalem falls to Goffredo; Argante is overcome and captured by Rinaldo, while Armida is taken by Eustazio. Rinaldo and Almirena celebrate their love and forthcoming marriage. Armida, accepting her defeat, breaks the wand which is the source of her evil power and together with Argante embraces Christianity. Goffredo expresses his forgiveness to his beaten foes and sets them free, before victors and vanquished join in
3456-509: A tenor, Armida a contralto, the Herald and the Magician become basses. Dean and Knapp summarise the 1731 revisions as "a striking illustration of the seeming vandalism with which Handel could treat his works in revival". The 19th-century music critic George Hogarth wrote of Rinaldo that "[t]he romantic interest of the subject, the charms of the music, and the splendour of the spectacle, made it an object of general attraction". Its premiere at
3584-593: A tenor; the Magician was transposed from alto castrato to bass, and Armida from soprano to contralto. The music, Lang says, flows "beguilingly" from the spacious overture; the quieter, emotional passages are illustrated evocatively, while in the more spectacular moments Handel's innovative use of brass is exciting and inspiring. The sudden blast of trumpets which announces the march in act 3 provides, say Dean and Knapp, "an effect of splendour and exhilaration that time has not dimmed". The harpsichord solos which decorate "Vo' far guerra" in act 2 were originally improvised on
3712-543: A wild bull that terrified Hippolytus's horses. A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of Aphrodite . Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that Asclepius had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium . According to some sources, Theseus also was one of the Argonauts , although Apollonius of Rhodes states in
3840-484: A young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father's tokens. His mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and that he must take the sword and sandals back to the king Aegeus to claim his birthright. To journey to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf , where he would encounter a string of six entrances to
3968-649: Is an error-strewn manuscript that may be a copy from one or more of the performing scores from that period. The manuscript bears numerous notes and corrections in Handel's hand, and was possibly the basis for the substantial revisions which he effected in 1731. It was also used by the copyist John Christopher Smith to produce two performing scores for the 1720s Hamburg performances. Further complete manuscript copies were produced by Smith and others in 1725–28 (the "Malmesbury" score), 1740 ("Lennard") and 1745 ("Granville"). These provide many variations of individual numbers. During
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4096-791: Is brought before the triumphant Armida. As he demands that Almirena be set free, Armida finds herself drawn to his noble spirit, and declares her love. When he angrily rejects her she uses her powers to assume Almirena's form, but Rinaldo suspects trickery, and departs. Armida, resuming her own appearance, is furious at her rejection yet retains feelings of tender love. She decides on another attempt to ensnare Rinaldo, and transforms herself back into Almirena's shape, but then encounters Argante. Believing her to be Almirena, Argante repeats his earlier promises of love and freedom. Swiftly resuming her own form, Armida denounces his infidelity and vows vengeance. Argante defiantly confirms his love for Almirena and declares that he no longer needs Armida's help. She departs in
4224-491: Is in fact in love with Teseo already. Arcane, who is jealous of Teseo because of his misinterpretation of his sweetheart Clizia's concern for him, warns the King not to trust Teseo who, Arcane suggests, will want to throw Egeo off the throne and take his place now that he has become such a military hero. Medea meanwhile sows seeds of distrust in Teseo's mind – the King is jealous of him, Medea says, and only she knows how to treat
4352-619: Is the occasion of Handel's harpsichord cadenzas. Armida's act 3 duet with Argante was the last duet with bass part that Handel wrote for 30 years. Of the other set pieces, Dean and Knapp highlight Rinaldo's "Cara sposa" as an example of Handel's growing confidence with aria forms. "Or la tromba" is praised for the brilliance of its orchestration: 4 trumpets, drums, strings & oboes—the only aria Handel ever wrote for this combination. The melody for Almirena's "Lascia ch'io pianga" began its life as an Asian dance in Almira before appearing as an aria in
4480-642: The Argonautica that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. Both statements are inconsistent with Medea being Aegeus' wife by the time Theseus first came to Athens. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered Acamas , who was one of those who hid in the Trojan Horse during the Trojan War . Theseus welcomed the wandering Oedipus and helped Adrastus to bury the Seven against Thebes . Lycomedes of
4608-547: The Göttingen International Handel Festival in 2004, with Nicholas McGegan conducting Concerto Köln . This production was well received by the public, but was criticised by Jochen Breiholz of Opera News for poor staging, indifferent singing and a substandard performance from the orchestra. Zürich Opera 's 2008 production, directed by Jens-Daniel Herzog and conducted by William Christie , threw aside all convention by representing
4736-681: The Handel Society of New York , with Stephen Simon conducting and Beverly Wolff as Rinaldo. The first staging of the opera in America was at the Houston Grand Opera under Lawrence Foster , in October 1975, with Marilyn Horne in the title role, a part with which she would become particularly associated on American stages. In July 1982 Horne sang the part alongside John Alexander 's Goffredo and Samuel Ramey 's Argante, in
4864-561: The Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment in the pit. The production is set in a school where Rinaldo is a student, initially the victim of bullying, who enters into the world of the Crusades. The Glyndebourne Festival Opera brought a semi-staged version of this production to the 2011 BBC Proms . The amount of recycled music in Rinaldo is such that Dean and Knapp call it an "anthology" of
4992-640: The Panathenaic Games , which were held there every four years. Being strong and skillful, he did very well, winning some events outright. He soon became a crowd favorite, much to the resentment of the Pallantides, who assassinated him, incurring the wrath of Minos. When King Minos heard what had befallen his son, he ordered the Cretan fleet to set sail for Athens. Minos asked Aegeus for his son's assassins, saying that if they were to be handed to him,
5120-571: The Underworld , each guarded by a chthonic enemy. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to go alone by the land route and defeated many bandits along the way. The six entrances to the underworld, more commonly known as the Six Labours, are as follows: When Theseus arrived in Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. Aegeus gave him hospitality but was suspicious of
5248-479: The key of F , and switches to G at the beginning of the grove scene in act 1. Act 2 starts in E minor and ends in G. The final act begins and ends in B minor . According to Hicks the dominant character musically, except in act 3 in which she barely sings, is Armida. Her entry cavatina "Furie terribili" gives, says Hicks, "an immediate impression of fiery passion", an energy and intensity demonstrated in her act 2 "Ah crudel", and in her later vengeance aria which
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5376-496: The 1731 revival were even more radical, since they not only affected individual musical numbers but involved alterations in the plot. The production was advertised "With New Scenes and Cloathes", but many of the changes involved reducing or eliminating the pyrotechnics and special effects that had characterised the original production. The only significant new music in the 1731 production is a long accompanied recitative for Rinaldo, though other numbers are changed or cut. Goffredo becomes
5504-593: The 1960s, Teseo , like all Handel operas, receives performances at festivals and opera houses today. Among other productions, the Handel Festival, Halle performed the work in 2003, the Frankfurt Opera mounted a production in 2013, and the work received a staging at the Theater an der Wien in 2018. King Egeo of Athens, years before the action begins, had sent away his baby son to a far-off land. Now
5632-581: The Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine-year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur , a half-man, half-bull monster that lived in the Labyrinth created by Daedalus . On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to talk to the monster to stop this horror. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with
5760-474: The King and is about to drink the poisoned beverage when the King recognises the sword as the one he had sent with his baby son years before so that he would be able to recognise him when grown up. The King dashes the cup from Teseo's hand and embraces him as his son. Not only will Teseo and Agilea now live in married happiness, Arcane and Clizia can marry too. The enraged Medea appears on a flying chariot drawn by fire-breathing dragons. Swearing vengeance, she orders
5888-514: The King to allay this bad feeling. Teseo tells Medea he trusts her to put the situation right. Medea, full of hatred, vows revenge for the insults she has suffered. Arcane has decided to put his jealousy behind him and seek marriage to Clizia. The King, learning that Agilea is in love not with him but with Teseo, does not wish to force her to marry him and has given his consent for Agilea and Teseo to be united. The lovers are overjoyed at this news but Medea, insulted and rejected once more, bursts into
6016-500: The King's Theatre. During these years Handel's industry was such that he was producing a new opera for this theatre every nine months. The 1731 production of Rinaldo received six performances, bringing the London total for the work to 53 in Handel's lifetime, the most for any of his operas. After 1731 Handel had fewer stage successes, and performances of his operas became rarer. Changes in taste and style combined, as Grout concludes, to "thrust [the operas] into ill-deserved oblivion", as
6144-411: The Labyrinth, and Theseus promised that if he returned from the Labyrinth he would take Ariadne with him. As soon as Theseus entered the Labyrinth, he tied one end of the ball of string to the doorpost and brandished his sword which he had kept hidden from the guards inside his tunic. Theseus followed Daedalus' instructions given to Ariadne: go forwards, always down, and never left or right. Theseus came to
6272-760: The Muslims at a signing ceremony". It was, wrote Associated Press critic Ronald Blum, "outrageous – and entertaining". A concert version of Rinaldo was given at the 2009 Edinburgh Festival , by the Bach Collegium Japan conducted by Masaaki Suzuki , with the Japanese soprano Maki Mori as Almirena. During the opera's tercentenary year in 2011, the Glyndebourne Festival mounted a new production directed by Robert Carsen , designed by Gideon Davey, and conducted by Ottavio Dantone with
6400-728: The Ottawa cast, brought the production to New York for the work's debut at the Metropolitan Opera . The production was loaned to the Met for its centennial season by the National Arts Centre of Canada "in deep appreciation of the many years during which Canadians have enjoyed opera from the Met – on tour, on radio and in New York". Donal Henahan in The New York Times praised all the singers in turn, with
6528-503: The Queen's Theatre on 24 February 1711, possibly under Handel's direction, was a triumphant success. A further 12 performances were immediately scheduled; at the end of the run, popular demand was such that two more were added. Notwithstanding this enthusiasm, the financial strains of such a grand production led to legal actions against Hill from unpaid craftsmen. Nine days after the premiere the Lord Chamberlain's Office revoked
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#17327982120746656-414: The action in a 21st-century airport lounge and conference centre, with Rinaldo dressed in a double-breasted navy blazer and needing a drink. "Characters go up and down on-stage escalators, and the set spins to show various areas of the lounge and terminal. There is a dissection of a small, white furry animal, a large snake, some allusions to Bond girls and character transformations. The Christians pull guns on
6784-476: The basis of this freedom, in late 1710 Handel left Hanover for London, possibly in response to an earlier invitation from members of the English nobility. By 1711, informed London audiences had become familiar with the nature of Italian opera through the numerous pastiches and adaptations that had been staged. The former Royal Academy of Music Principal, Curtis Price , writes that the popularity of these pieces
6912-401: The best works from Handel's Italian period. Sadie raises the question of whether the opera's dramaturgy is affected by the small amount of music written for its particular situations. He also comments on the problems raised for scholars by the extensive revisions to the music that took place during Handel's lifetime, but suggests that the available admixture creates interesting opportunities in
7040-548: The boat. He hesitates, unsure what to do, and his companions attempt to restrain him. Angry at the abduction of his loved one, Rinaldo enters the boat, which immediately sails off. Goffredo and Eustazio are shocked at Rinaldo's impulsiveness and believe that he has deserted their cause. In Armida's palace garden, Almirena mourns her captivity. Argante joins her and, overcome by her beauty, confesses that he now loves her. He promises that as proof of his feelings he will defy Armida's wrath and secure Almirena's freedom. Meanwhile, Rinaldo
7168-414: The childless Aegeus would be lost if they did not get rid of Theseus (the Pallantides were the sons of Pallas and nephews of King Aegeus , who was then living at the royal court in the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo). So they set a trap for him. One band of them would march on the town from one side while another lay in wait near a place called Gargettus in ambush. The plan was that after Theseus, Aegeus, and
7296-454: The city of Jerusalem visible in the distance. Armida, after a last attempt to kill Almirena, also disappears as Rinaldo strikes her with his sword. The remaining four celebrate their reunion, while Goffredo announces that the attack on Jerusalem will begin the next day. In the city, Argante and Armida, in danger from a common enemy, become reconciled and prepare their troops for battle. Goffredo's army advances, and battle finally commences. After
7424-463: The city would be spared. However, not knowing who the assassins were, King Aegeus surrendered the whole city to Minos' mercy. His retribution was to stipulate that at the end of every Great Year , which occurred after every seven cycles on the solar calendar, the seven most courageous youths and the seven most beautiful maidens were to board a boat and be sent as tribute to Crete, never to be seen again. In another version, King Minos had waged war with
7552-552: The composition of cantatas and oratorios . In Rome, Handel met Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani , a diplomat and spare-time librettist; the result of this meeting was a collaboration which produced Handel's second Italian opera, Agrippina . After this work's triumphant premiere at the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice, on 26 December 1709, Handel became, says biographer P. H. Lang , "world famous and
7680-403: The countertenor David Daniels as Rinaldo, Cecilia Bartoli as Almirena and Catherine Bott in the small part of First Mermaid. Gramophone's reviewer called this issue "a treat for Handel lovers – a rare recording of one of the composer's richest operas, with a strong and starry cast". Since then several more versions have been made available: Harry Bicket 's 2001 recording for Arthaus, which
7808-668: The daughter of King Minos, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas . While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus , Theseus' son by the Amazon queen Hippolyta . According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned Aphrodite to become a follower of Artemis , so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity. Alternatively, in Euripides' version, Hippolytus , Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal
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#17327982120747936-470: The dragons to set the palace on fire, but the goddess Minerva descends from heaven, banishes Medea, and blesses the King, the two pairs of lovers, and Athens. The German-born Handel, after spending some of his early career composing operas and other pieces in Italy, settled in London, where in 1711 he had brought Italian opera for the first time with his opera Rinaldo . A tremendous success, Rinaldo created
8064-555: The extent of cuts. Singers were, Sadie says, allowed too much freedom to ornament their vocal lines; some of the cadenzas were "preposterous". The opera reached Australia in 1999, at the Sydney Opera House under Patrick Summers , and was performed there again in July–August 2005 under Trevor Pinnock , with Michael Chance as Rinaldo. The new century saw a number of performances across Europe, including an appearance at
8192-460: The first and only time in his many operas using a five-act structure instead of the usual three, and deviating from the convention in Italian opera seria that singers performed their arias and then left the stage. These differences are due to the fact that Teseo uses an adaptation of a French libretto written by Philippe Quinault for Jean-Baptiste Lully , Thésée , presented in Paris in 1675. After
8320-476: The god. To preserve the purity of the occasion, no executions were permitted between the time when the religious ceremony began to when the ship returned from Delos, which took several weeks. To preserve the ship, any wood that wore out or rotted was replaced; it was thus unclear to philosophers how much of the original ship remained, giving rise to the philosophical question of whether it should be considered "the same" ship or not. Such philosophical questions about
8448-408: The heart of the Labyrinth and upon the sleeping Minotaur. The beast awoke and a tremendous fight occurred. Theseus overpowered the Minotaur with his strength and stabbed the beast in the throat with his sword (according to one scholium on Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode, Theseus strangled it). After decapitating the beast, Theseus used the string to escape the Labyrinth and managed to escape with all of
8576-444: The hero will meet his death. Medea shows her a vision of the sleeping Teseo, menaced by specters about to kill him. Agilea agrees to renounce him and marry the King instead to save Teseo's life, whereupon Medea transforms the scene to a paradisaical realm where Teseo hears Agilea's voice tearfully telling him she no longer loves him. Agilea's sorrow moves the heart of Medea who informs the lovers she will no longer attempt to part them, to
8704-409: The hissing snakes of Alecto and the howls of Scylla , as "ludicrously inappropriate" to accompany the king's grand act 1 entrance. Many other numbers—Dean and Knapp estimate two-thirds of the arias—were adapted and partly recomposed from earlier sources. In the years between the 1711 premiere and the 1717 revival, Handel made various adjustments to the score and the vocal parts, often to accommodate
8832-478: The idol of a spoiled and knowledgeable audience". This sudden recognition led to eager competition for Handel's services. Among those most keen to employ him was Prince Georg Ludwig , the Elector of Hanover and future King George I of Great Britain. In June 1710 Handel accepted the appointment of Kapellmeister to Georg's Hanover court, under terms that gave him considerable scope to pursue his own interests. On
8960-418: The impresario's licence. Under Hill's successors the opera was played at the theatre in most seasons until 1716–17, by which time it had totalled 47 performances, far more than any other opera at the Queen's. The public's general enthusiasm for the opera was not shared by the writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele , who used the pages of their new journal, The Spectator , to pour scorn and ridicule on
9088-472: The initial run at the Queen's Theatre the publisher John Walsh printed Songs in the Opera of Rinaldo , in mainly short score form. Apart from the overture, instrumental numbers were omitted, as were the recitatives. In June 1711 Walsh published a fuller version, which included instrumental parts; he continued to publish versions of individual numbers, with a variety of orchestrations, until the 1730s. In 1717 William Babell issued an arrangement for harpsichord of
9216-440: The island of Skyros threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In 475 BC, in response to an oracle, Cimon of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus "a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear-head by its side and a sword." (Plutarch, Life of Theseus ). The remains found by Cimon were reburied in Athens. The early modern name Theseion (Temple of Theseus)
9344-510: The island of Sphairia that lay close to Troezen's shore. There, she poured a libation to Sphairos (Pelops's charioteer) and Poseidon and was possessed by the sea god in the night. The mix gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double paternity, with one immortal and one mortal, was a familiar feature of other Greek heroes . After Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under
9472-466: The joy of Teseo and Agilea. Medea's sympathy for Teseo and Agilea's love did not last long; once again tormented by jealousy, she has convinced the King that Teseo is a threat to his throne and gives the King poison to put in Teseo's drink. Teseo and Agilea enter with their friends, celebrating their marriage. The King offers to drink to their happiness and gives Teseo the poisoned drink to toast with in return. Teseo draws his sword to swear his loyalty to
9600-485: The keyboard by Handel during performances, and were extremely popular. They were remembered and written down by William Babell , and published later as separate pieces. Lang believes that in spite of the borrowings, and the hasty manner in which the work was put together, Rinaldo is one of Handel's great operas. According to Dean and Knapp, no Italian opera heard in London to that point had been supported by such "majestic" orchestral forces. Critic Anthony Hicks describes
9728-496: The libretto were published in Hamburg in 1715, 1723 and 1727. The first full recording of Rinaldo (an "excerpts" disc had preceded it by two years) was made in 1977 by CBS, with Carolyn Watkinson in the title role, Ileana Cotrubaș as Almirena, and Jean-Claude Malgoire conducting La Grande Écurie et la Chambre du Roy . The work, recorded in a Paris church, was based on the 1711 score; Alan Blyth in Gramophone praised
9856-703: The literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry Hippodamia . The centaurs were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle. In Ovid 's Metamorphoses Theseus fights against and kills Eurytus , the "fiercest of all the fierce centaurs" at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia . Also according to Ovid, Phaedra, Theseus' wife, felt left out by her husband's love for Pirithous and she used this as an excuse to try to convince her stepson, Hippolytus, to accept being her lover, as Theseus also neglected his son because he preferred to spend long periods with his companion. Theseus,
9984-403: The marches and the battle scene are cut; Armida and Argante remain unrepentant and vanish in a chariot drawn by dragons before the conclusion. In a letter dedicating the new opera to Queen Anne, Hill wrote of his choice of story: "I could not chuse a finer Subject than the celebrated story of Rinaldo and Armida". He had, however, exercised "a Poet's Privilege", to render Tasso's work suitable for
10112-405: The mid-1980s onwards, performances of Rinaldo became more frequent worldwide. In June 1989 it was staged at La Fenice in Venice, under John Fisher , again with Marilyn Horne. This production was criticised by critic and music scholar Stanley Sadie , in his review of the live recording, for straying too far from the composer's original intentions, particularly in the rearrangement of material and
10240-451: The monsters, but as they reach the gates of the palace it disappears, leaving them clinging to a rock in the midst of a stormy sea. They climb the rock and descend out of sight. In the palace garden Armida prepares to kill Almirena. Rinaldo draws his sword, but Armida is protected from his wrath by spirits. Suddenly Goffredo and Eustazio arrive, but as they touch the garden with their wands it disappears, leaving them all on an empty plain with
10368-430: The music, overall, as both "varied and excellent". Dean and Knapp's verdict is more equivocal. The music for the war and pageantry scenes, they say, is "brilliantly successful", but in depicting the scenes concerned with magic, Handel misses the mark; they suggest it was not until over 15 years later, with Admeto and Orlando , that he was able to represent the supernatural convincingly in music. The opera begins in
10496-624: The nature of identity are sometimes referred to as the " Ship of Theseus " paradox. Regardless of these issues, the Athenians preserved the ship. They believed that Theseus had been an actual, historical figure and the ship gave them a tangible connection to their divine provenance. Theseus's best friend was Pirithous , king of the Lapiths . Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from Marathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and
10624-555: The necessary distinction between vocal and instrumental material and, above all, the release of [his] wonderful melodic gift". Handel's first Italian opera, Rodrigo , showed an incomplete grasp of Italian style, with much of Keiser's Hamburg influence still evident; it was not a success when premiered in Florence, in late November or early December 1707. He followed this by a lengthy visit to Rome, where opera performances were then forbidden by papal decree, and honed his skills through
10752-442: The nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity , Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from Poseidon against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus' horses to be frightened by a sea monster, usually a bull, and drag their rider to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus
10880-490: The old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place... The ship had to be maintained in a seaworthy state, for, in return for Theseus's successful mission, the Athenians had pledged to honor Apollo every year henceforth. Thus, the Athenians sent a religious mission to the island of Delos (one of Apollo's most sacred sanctuaries) on the Athenian state galley—the ship itself—to pay their fealty to
11008-478: The opera houses and concert halls. He obtained introductions to leading musicians, among them Arcangelo Corelli , Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti , and Agostino Steffani , and met numerous singers and performers. From these acquaintances Handel learned the essential characteristics of Italian music, in particular (according to Dean and Knapp ) "fluency in the treatment of Italian verse, accurate declamation and flexible harmonic rhythm in recitative, ... drawing
11136-518: The oratorio Il trionfo . From this simple tune and plain accompaniment Handel achieves an "intensely moving effect" in this, the best-known of all the arias. The main musical numbers from the 1711 libretto are listed, together with changes and replacements from the two major revisions of 1717 and 1731. Minor changes, transpositions, and alterations to recitative sections are not shown. New numbers introduced in 1717 and 1731 are listed separately. Other arias not listed may have been sung in Rinaldo during
11264-454: The other leading female part, the sweet Princess Agilea. 18th century musicologist Charles Burney wrote of the accompanied recitatives for Medea: in which the wild and savage fury of the enraged sorceress, Medea, and her incantations, are admirably painted by the instruments. Theseus Theseus ( UK : / ˈ θ iː sj uː s / , US : / ˈ θ iː s i ə s / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Θησεύς [tʰɛːsěu̯s] )
11392-492: The overture and seven of the arias. Friedrich Chrysander published editions of the whole opera in 1874 and in 1894, based on a study of the existing published and manuscript material. In 1993 David Kimbell, for the Hallische Händel-Ausgabe (HHA), produced a full score of the 1711 version, together with rejected draft material and the additional numbers introduced in revivals up to 1717. HHA has also produced
11520-673: The pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other's gracefulness, beauty and courage they took an oath of friendship and joined the Calydonian boar hunt . In Iliad I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in
11648-522: The palace guards had been forced out the front, the other half would surprise them from behind. However, Theseus was not fooled. Informed of the plan by a herald named Leos, he crept out of the city at midnight and surprised the Pallantides. "Theseus then fell suddenly upon the party lying in ambush, and slew them all. Thereupon the party with Pallas dispersed," Plutarch reported. Pasiphaë , wife of King Minos of Crete, had several children. The eldest of these, Androgeus , set sail for Athens to take part in
11776-522: The playwright Barthold Feind, proved to be very popular and was revived in the city on numerous occasions during the 1720s. A pastiche of the opera, with additional numbers by Leonardo Leo , was presented by Leo at the Royal Court in Naples in 1718, with Nicolini singing his original role. After 1716–17, Rinaldo was not seen on the London stage until 1731, when it was revived in its revised form at
11904-452: The preface to the libretto, which suggest that Rossi was the senior partner in the birth of the libretto. Price also points to the likely influences on the structure of Rinaldo from two British semi-operas — George Granville 's The British Enchanters , and Purcell 's King Arthur . The transformations of characters to others' shapes, Price contends, is likely derived from John Dryden 's play Amphitryon . Handel's speed of composition
12032-419: The preparation of modern performing versions. The initial popular success of Rinaldo was assisted by the employment of virtuoso singers, in particular Nicolini in the title role. This part has remained in its original pitch, though in his various revisions Handel transposed the music of other leading roles to different voice types. Thus Goffredo had originally been an alto part, but in the 1717 revisions became
12160-433: The public, despite negative reactions from literary critics hostile to the contemporary trend towards Italian entertainment in English theatres. Handel composed Rinaldo quickly, borrowing and adapting music from operas and other works that he had composed during a long stay in Italy in the years 1706–10, during which he established a considerable reputation. In the years following the premiere, he made numerous amendments to
12288-426: The requirements of new singers. Details of these changes are difficult to establish since the performing librettos and scores for these years no longer exist. For 1717, more significant revisions were made; the role of Eustazio was merged with that of Goffredo, and Argante's part was rewritten to accommodate an alto voice. Thus in this revival all the principal parts were sung in high voice ranges. Handel's revisions for
12416-411: The room where Agilea and Teseo are celebrating their reunion and, by casting spells, changes the scene to a desert full of terrifying apparitions who carry Agilea away. The King is told by Arcane of how the witch Medea spirited Agilea away. The horrified Egeo swears she will be punished. In the enchanted realm where Agilea is captive, Medea tells her she must agree to marry the King instead of Teseo, or
12544-464: The sandals and the sword and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hands. Thus father and son were reunited, and Medea fled to Asia . When Theseus appeared in the town, his reputation had preceded him, as a result of his having traveled along the notorious coastal road from Troezen and slain some of the most feared bandits there. It was not long before the Pallantides ' hopes of succeeding
12672-457: The score. Rinaldo is regarded by critics as one of Handel's greatest operas. Of its individual numbers, the soprano aria " Lascia ch'io pianga " has become a particular favourite, and is a popular concert piece. Handel went on to dominate opera in England for several decades. Rinaldo was revived in London regularly up to 1717, and in a revised version in 1731; of all Handel's operas, Rinaldo
12800-543: The sea, causing this body of water to be named the Aegean Sea. According to Plutarch 's Life of Theseus , the ship Theseus used on his return from Minoan Crete to Athens was kept in the Athenian harbor as a memorial for several centuries. The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus , for they took away
12928-477: The second performance theatre manager Owen Swiny stole the box office receipts and disappeared, leaving the musicians unpaid. The singers decided to continue the run however, splitting the costs and profits between themselves. Handel does not seem to have held a grudge against Swiny, as he later acted as an agent for Italian opera singers in Handel's London operas. The stage machinery for the special "magic" effects did not always function smoothly, as can be seen by
13056-455: The singing of Nicolò Grimaldi , the celebrated alto castrato known as "Nicolini", in the title role. Steele compared the production unfavourably to a Punch and Judy show, particularly criticising certain bungled scene changes and the poor quality of effects such as thunder and lightning. Hogarth made light of such comments: "Notwithstanding the influence which the Spectator influenced over
13184-465: The sky in a fiery chariot. She has divined that the Saracens' only chance of victory lies in vanquishing Rinaldo, and has the power, she claims, to achieve this. The scene changes to a garden, with fountains and birds, where Rinaldo and Almirena are celebrating their love. They are interrupted as Armida appears, and wrests Almirena from Rinaldo's embrace. Rinaldo draws his sword to defend his lover, but
13312-432: The stage. This "privilege" moved the opera's story a long way from Tasso's original. Hill invented a new heroine, Almirena, to provide the main love interest with the hero Rinaldo, and the relationship between Rinaldo and Armida scarcely figures in the opera. Likewise, the affair between Argante and Armida is Hill's creation, as are the conversions to Christianity, the latter possibly a sop to English susceptibilities. Rossi
13440-421: The standard of the singing, and despite reservations about the sound quality, called it one of the most enjoyable of available Handel opera recordings. There was no further recording of Rinaldo available until 1990, when John Fisher's heavily cut version from La Fenice was issued. Another decade passed before the appearance of Christopher Hogwood 's 1999 Decca recording, again based on the original score, with
13568-520: The subject of myth, the existence of Theseus as a real person has not been proven, but scholars believe that he may have been alive during the Late Bronze Age, or possibly as a king in the 8th or 9th century BC. Aegeus , one of the primordial kings of Athens , was childless. Desiring an heir, he asked the Oracle of Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of
13696-514: The taste and manners of the age, its attacks ... seem to have had little effect in turning people from the entertainment". Some sources have suggested that the opera was performed in Dublin in March or April 1711, though according to Dean and Knapp there is no record of such an occasion. In November 1715 a version mainly in German was performed in Hamburg. This production, based on a translation by
13824-663: The truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite. In a version recounted by the Roman playwright Seneca , entitled Phaedra , after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus called upon Neptune (as he did Poseidon in Euripides' interpretation) to kill his son. Upon hearing the news of Hippolytus' death at the hands of Neptune's sea monster, Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die. In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself. Dionysus sent
13952-546: The underworld for his 12th task. There he persuaded Persephone to forgive him for the part he had taken in the rash venture of Pirithous. So Theseus was restored to the upper air but Pirithous never left the kingdom of the dead, for when Heracles tried to free Pirithous, the underworld shook. They then decided the task was beyond any hero and left. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the Dioscuri had taken Helen and Aethra to Sparta . Phaedra , Theseus' second wife and
14080-537: The way. When he reaches Athens, he finds that Aegeus is married to Medea (formerly wife of Jason ), who plots against him. The most famous legend about Theseus is his slaying of the Minotaur, half man and half bull. He then goes on to unite Attica under Athenian rule: the synoikismos ('dwelling together'). As the unifying king, he is credited with building a palace on the fortress of the Acropolis . Pausanias reports that after synoikismos , Theseus established
14208-406: The wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. He asked the advice of his host Pittheus , king of Troezen . Pittheus understood the prophecy, got Aegeus drunk, and gave Aegeus his daughter Aethra . But following the instructions of Athena in a dream, Aethra left the sleeping Aegeus and waded across to
14336-552: The work have become more frequent worldwide. Rinaldo was the first Handel opera to have found its way to the Metropolitan. The opera's tercentenary in 2011 brought a modernized production at the Glyndebourne Festival . Handel began to compose operas at the Oper am Gänsemarkt in Hamburg, where he spent the years 1703 to 1706; his principal influences were Johann Mattheson and Reinhard Keiser . At that time, German opera as
14464-416: The work. Addison may have been motivated by his own failure, a few years previously, to establish a school of English opera with Rosamund , on which he had collaborated with the composer Thomas Clayton. It was absurd, he wrote, that theatre audiences should be exposed to entire evenings of entertainment in a foreign tongue: "We no longer understand the language of our own stage". Addison did, however, praise
14592-752: The years 1711–17, but in the absence of contemporary evidence from scores or librettos the extent of such changes cannot be accurately ascertained. No complete autograph score exists; fragments representing about three-quarters of the 1711 score are held by the Royal Music Library (a subdivision of the British Library in London) and the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. The oldest complete score, dating from about 1716,
14720-407: The young Athenians a dance still performed by the inhabitants of the island, consisting of twisting and twisted movements that reproduce the shapes of the labyrinth. Dicearchos states that this dance is called 'Crane'." Theseus forgot to put up the white sails instead of the black ones, so his father, the king, believing he was dead, committed suicide, throwing himself off a cliff of Sounion and into
14848-417: The young Athenians and Ariadne as well as her younger sister Phaedra . Then he and the rest of the crew fell asleep on the beach of the island of Naxos, where they stopped on their way back, looking for water. Theseus then abandoned Ariadne, where Dionysus eventually found and married her. On his way back from Crete, he also stopped on the island of Delos , where, according to Plutarch , "Theseus danced with
14976-522: The young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus's consort Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son Medus . She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull , an emblem of Cretan power. On the way to Marathon , Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named Hecale . She swore to make
15104-410: Was Almira , a considerable success when it was premiered on 8 January 1705. Over the next three years Handel composed three more operas in the German style, but all of these are now lost. However, fragments of the music from these works have been identified in later operas. In autumn 1706 Handel went to Italy. He stayed for long periods in Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice, making frequent visits to
15232-601: Was "to combine the virtuosity of Italian singing with the extravagance of the 17th century masque". The Crusader army under Goffredo is laying siege to Jerusalem, where the Saracen king Argante is confined with his troops. With Goffredo are his brother Eustazio, his daughter Almirena, and the knight Rinaldo. As Goffredo sings of the coming victory, Rinaldo declares his love for Almirena, and Goffredo confirms that she will be Rinaldo's bride when Jerusalem falls. Almirena urges Rinaldo to fight boldly and assure victory. As she departs,
15360-515: Was a divine hero in Greek mythology , famous for slaying the Minotaur . The myths surrounding Theseus, his journeys, exploits, and friends, have provided material for storytelling throughout the ages. Theseus is sometimes described as the son of Aegeus , king of Athens, and sometimes as the son of the god Poseidon . He is raised by his mother, Aethra , and upon discovering his connection to Aegeus, travels overland to Athens, having many adventures on
15488-580: Was assisted by his inclusion of arias and other numbers from his earlier Italian works, among them "Bel piacere" and "Basta che sol" from Agrippina , "Sibillar gli angui" from the dramatic cantata Aci, Galatea e Polifemo , and the mermaids' song "Il vostro maggio" from the cantata Arresta il passo . Almirena's aria "Lascia ch'io pianga" had appeared in the oratorio Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno . The suitability of some of these insertions has been questioned by later commentators; Dean and Knapp cite Argante's "Sibillar gli angui", with its references to
15616-550: Was at the Halle Opera House in June 1954, under Horst-Tanu Margraf , as part of the Handel Festival . On 17 May 1961 the Handel Opera Society, directed by Charles Farncombe [ es ; fr ] , staged the work at London's Sadler's Wells Theatre , a production that was revived four years later. The first American performance was a concert version at Carnegie Hall on 27 March 1972, given by
15744-404: Was crying out. Around him gathered the terrible band of Furies with snakes in their hair, torches, and long whips in their hands. Before these monsters, the hero's courage failed and he was led away to eternal punishment. For many months in half-darkness, Theseus sat immovably fixed to the rock, mourning for both his friend and for himself. In the end, he was rescued by Heracles who had come to
15872-454: Was mistakenly applied to the Temple of Hephaestus which was thought to be the actual site of the hero's tomb . Primary sources Secondary sources Rinaldo (opera) Rinaldo ( HWV 7) is an opera by George Frideric Handel , composed in 1711, and was the first Italian language opera written specifically for the London stage. The libretto was prepared by Giacomo Rossi from
16000-459: Was required to turn the elaborate scenario into verses, a relatively light task which, he said, was "the delivery of a few evenings". Nevertheless, Rossi complained that Handel hardly gave him time to write: "To my great wonder I saw an entire Opera set to music by that surprising genius, with the greatest degree of perfection, in two weeks". Price argues that Rossi's role was beyond that of a mere versifier, quoting Hill's words of praise for Rossi in
16128-418: Was rescued by the Dioscuri . On Pirithous's behalf they rather unwisely traveled to the underworld, domain of Persephone and her husband Hades . As they wandered through the outskirts of Tartarus , Theseus sat down to rest on a rock. As he did so he felt his limbs change and grow stiff. He tried to rise but could not. He was fixed to the rock. As he turned to cry out to his friend, he saw that Pirithous too
16256-450: Was the most frequently performed during his lifetime. After 1731, however, the opera was not staged for more than 200 years. Renewed interest in baroque opera during the 20th century led to the first modern professional production in Handel's birthplace, Halle , Germany, in 1954. The opera was mounted sporadically over the following thirty years; after a successful run at New York's Metropolitan Opera in 1984, performances and recordings of
16384-419: Was the result of a deliberate strategy aimed at the suppression of English opera. Handel's music was relatively unknown in England, though his reputation from Agrippina was considerable elsewhere. A short "Italian Dialogue" he had written in honour of Queen Anne 's birthday was well received when performed at St James's Palace on 6 February 1711. In London, by means which are not documented, Handel secured
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