Jhelum River
70-547: The Thal desert ( Punjabi : تَھل صحرہ , romanized : Thal Sahrā'h ; Urdu : صحراےَ تھل , romanized : Sehrā-é-Thal ) is situated at 31°10’ N and 71°30’ E in the province of Punjab , Pakistan . Located near the Pothohar Plateau , the area falls under the Indomalayan biogeographic realm and stretches for a length of approximately 190 miles (310 km) with a maximum breadth of 70 miles (119 km). It
140-576: A descendant of Prakrit. Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century AD and became stable by the 10th century. The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to the Nath Yogi -era from 9th to 14th century. The language of these compositions is morphologically closer to Shauraseni Apbhramsa , though vocabulary and rhythm is surcharged with extreme colloquialism and folklore. Writing in 1317–1318, Amir Khusrau referred to
210-589: A liberal approach. Through Persian, Punjabi also absorbed many Arabic-derived words like dukān , ġazal and more, as well as Turkic words like qēncī , sōġāt , etc. After the fall of the Sikh empire , Urdu was made the official language of Punjab under the British (in Pakistani Punjab , it is still the primary official language) and influenced the language as well. In the second millennium , Punjabi
280-679: A prominent feature of the zone and consist of sediment reworked by wind and brought in by the Indus River, which lays upstream of the orogenic front . They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. The area is also underlain by Quaternary fluvial and eolian deposits over 350m thick in southern areas, and even thicker in the central region of the desert. This underlying alluvium consists largely of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor gravel and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in
350-632: A third is via the Kabul River ), the Nanga Parbat massif (< 10%), and the Himalayan belt (< 10%, inclusive of detritus recycled by the Soan River ). The Thal desert is a subtropical sandy region with severe climatic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes. Approximately 50% of the region sees hyper-arid climatic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and
420-662: A total of over 800 species of vascular plants . The Transhimalayas are home to the once endangered snow leopard , the Eurasian lynx , Tibetan wolf , red fox and Tibetan fox . Native herbivores include the argali , Tibetan gazelle , urial , wild ass or kiang , Asiatic ibex , yak and bharal . The Tibetan wolf, snow leopard and lynx are major predators of livestock in the Ladakh region of India. Goats, sheep, yak and horses were their most common prey. In Mustang, Nepal, rising temperatures and declining snowfall are reducing
490-706: A word will be pronounced, and vice versa. Tone is often reduced or rarely deleted when words are said with emphasis or on their own as a form of more exact identification. Sequences with the consonant h have some additional gimmicks: The consonant h on its own is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word-initially. However, certain dialects which exert stronger tone, particularly more northern Punjabi varieties and Dogri , pronounce h as very faint (thus tonal) in all cases. E.g. hatth > àtth . The Jhangvi and Shahpuri dialects of Punjabi (as they transition into Saraiki ) show comparatively less realisation of tone than other Punjabi varieties, and do not induce
560-708: Is a 1,600-kilometre-long (990 mi) mountain range in China , India and Nepal , extending in a west–east direction parallel to the main Himalayan range. Located north of Yarlung Tsangpo river on the southern edge of the Tibetan Plateau , the Transhimalaya is composed of the Gangdise range to the west and the Nyenchen Tanglha range to the east. The name Transhimalaya was introduced by
630-403: Is a common feature and perennial grasses make up much of the vegetation . Agriculture and livestock rearing form the main sources of livelihood for the population, who live in small scattered settlements throughout the desert. The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south. It falls under
700-482: Is a tendency with speakers to insert /ɪ̯/ between adjacent "a"-vowels as a separator. This usually changes to /ʊ̯/ if either vowel is nasalised. Note: for the tonal stops, refer to the next section about Tone. The three retroflex consonants /ɳ, ɽ, ɭ/ do not occur initially, and the nasals [ŋ, ɲ] most commonly occur as allophones of /n/ in clusters with velars and palatals (there are few exceptions). The well-established phoneme /ʃ/ may be realised allophonically as
770-436: Is always written as نگ . Like Hindustani , the diphthongs /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ have mostly disappeared, but are still retained in some dialects. Phonotactically , long vowels /aː, iː, uː/ are treated as doubles of their short vowel counterparts /ə, ɪ, ʊ/ rather than separate phonemes. Hence, diphthongs like ai and au get monophthongised into /eː/ and /oː/, and āi and āu into /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ respectively. The phoneme /j/
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#1732772579338840-560: Is bound by the piedmont of the northern Salt Range , the Indus River floodplains in the west and the Jhelum and Chenab rivers' floodplains in the east. It is a subtropical sandy desert that resembles the deserts of Cholistan and Thar geographically. The region is characterized by sand dunes , prone to massive shifting and rolling, as well as scant rainfall, high diurnal variation of temperature and high wind velocity. Aridity
910-481: Is higher with the most abundant species being Turdoides squamiceps (Arabian babbler) and Lanius excubitor (Great grey shrike). The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the Cattle egret , Little green bee-eater , Persian bee-eater, Indian roller and Golden backed woodpecker. Cultivated crops such as chickpeas, wheat , maize and rice are also an important food source to
980-570: Is identical to the Urdu alphabet , however various attempts have been made to create certain, distinct characters from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq characters to represent Punjabi phonology , not already found in the Urdu alphabet . In Pakistan, Punjabi loans technical words from Persian and Arabic , just like Urdu does. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan ,
1050-485: Is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climatic fluctuations, limited availability of veterinary services and poor access to animal vaccinations. In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing. Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration. Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout
1120-469: Is the Saccharum with its various uses in sheltering, fodder and making objects. Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts. The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet monsoon . Most plants that are grown are done so for
1190-755: Is the most widely-spoken first language in Pakistan, with 88.9 million native speakers according to the 2023 Pakistani census , and the 11th most widely-spoken in India, with 31.1 million native speakers, according to the 2011 census . It is spoken among a significant overseas diaspora , particularly in Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States , Australia , and the Gulf states . In Pakistan, Punjabi
1260-452: Is very fluid in Punjabi. /j/ is only truly pronounced word-initially (even then it often becomes /d͡ʒ/), where it is otherwise /ɪ/ or /i/. Unusually for an Indo-Aryan language, Punjabi distinguishes lexical tones . Three tones are distinguished in Punjabi (some sources have described these as tone contours, given in parentheses): low (high-falling), high (low-rising), and level (neutral or middle). The transcriptions and tone annotations in
1330-629: Is widely used in the TV and entertainment industry of Pakistan, which is mainly produced in Lahore . The Standard Punjabi used in India and Pakistan have slight differences. In India, it discludes many of the dialect-specific features of Majhi. In Pakistan, the standard is closer to the Majhi spoken in the urban parts of Lahore. "Eastern Punjabi" refers to the varieties of Punjabi spoken in Pakistani Punjab (specifically Northern Punjabi), most of Indian Punjab ,
1400-709: Is written using the Shahmukhi alphabet , based on the Perso-Arabic script ; in India, it is written using the Gurmukhi alphabet , based on the Indic scripts . Punjabi is unusual among the Indo-Aryan languages and the broader Indo-European language family in its usage of lexical tone . The word Punjabi (sometimes spelled Panjabi ) has been derived from the word Panj-āb , Persian for 'Five Waters', referring to
1470-589: The Av- of Avon . The historical Punjab region , now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries . One of the five, the Beas River , is a tributary of another, the Sutlej . Punjabi developed from Prakrit languages and later Apabhraṃśa ( Sanskrit : अपभ्रंश , 'deviated' or 'non-grammatical speech') From 600 BC, Sanskrit developed as
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#17327725793381540-465: The Hazara region , most of Azad Kashmir and small parts of Indian Punjab such as Fazilka . These include groups of dialects like Saraiki , Pahari-Pothwari , Hindko and the extinct Inku ; common dialects like Jhangvi , Shahpuri , Dhanni and Thali which are usually grouped under the term Jatki Punjabi; and the mixed variety of Punjabi and Sindhi called Khetrani . Depending on context,
1610-758: The Majha region of the Punjab. In India , Punjabi is written in the Gurmukhī script in offices, schools, and media. Gurmukhi is the official standard script for Punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the Latin scripts due to influence from English , one of India's two primary official languages at the Union -level. In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, which in literary standards,
1680-703: The Spiti region of Himachal Pradesh , India, has an annual rainfall of about 170 mm. However, studies in Mustang District , Nepal, indicate that climate change is warming the Transhimalayas at a rate of about 0.13 degrees a year. The Transhimalayas generally have low species diversity (and vegetation cover) and are classified as dry alpine steppes. However, a study in the Spiti region found 23 medicinal plants. Previous surveys in this region had found
1750-413: The h consonant itself and any voiced consonants appended with [h] (Gurmukhi: ੍ਹ "perī̃ hāhā" , Shahmukhi: ھ "dō-caśmī hē" ); usually ṛh , mh , nh , rh and lh . The five tonal plosives also become voiceless word-initially. E.g. ghar > kàr "house", ḍhōl > ṭṑl "drum" etc. Tonogenesis in Punjabi forfeits the sound of [h] for tone. Thus, the more [h] is realised, the less "tonal"
1820-503: The voiceless retroflex fricative [ʂ] in learned clusters with retroflexes. Due to its foreign origin, it is often also realised as [s] , in e.g. shalwār /salᵊ.ʋaːɾᵊ/ . The phonemic status of the consonants /f, z, x, ɣ, q/ varies with familiarity with Hindustani norms, more so with the Gurmukhi script, with the pairs /f, pʰ/ , /z, d͡ʒ/ , /x, kʰ/ , /ɣ, g/ , and /q, k/ systematically distinguished in educated speech, /q/ being
1890-538: The 1970s with current numbers nearing extinction. The common (desert) red fox, Kuhl's pipistrelle , Indian desert cat , Chinkara , Indian hare , and Indian hairy-footed gerbil habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century. The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal Game Reserve is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species. Bird populations peak around December–January, due to an increase in
1960-779: The 1981 and 2017 censuses respectively, speakers of the Western Punjabi 's Saraiki and Hindko varieties were no longer included in the total numbers for Punjabi, which explains the apparent decrease. Pothwari speakers however are included in the total numbers for Punjabi. Punjabi is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab , and has the status of an additional official language in Haryana and Delhi. Some of its major urban centres in northern India are Amritsar , Ludhiana , Chandigarh , Jalandhar , Ambala , Patiala , Bathinda , Hoshiarpur , Firozpur and Delhi . In
2030-475: The 19th century from the Medieval Punjabi stage. Modern Punjabi has two main varieties, Western Punjabi and Eastern Punjabi , which have many dialects and forms, altogether spoken by over 150 million people. The Majhi dialect , which is transitional between the two main varieties, has been adopted as standard Punjabi in India and Pakistan for education and mass media. The Majhi dialect originated in
2100-684: The 2011 census of India, 31.14 million reported their language as Punjabi. The census publications group this with speakers of related "mother tongues" like Bagri and Bhateali to arrive at the figure of 33.12 million. Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada. There were 670,000 native Punjabi speakers in Canada in 2021, 300,000 in
2170-552: The Greater Thal Canal Phase project (Choubara Branch) was launched in 2020. This will bring around 300 000 acres of the desert land under irrigation. The partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government. The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into
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2240-713: The Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in early 20th century. The Transhimalaya was described by the Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer in 1952 as an "ill-defined mountain area" with "no marked crest line or central alignment and no division by rivers." On more-modern maps the Kailas Range (Gangdise or Kang-to-sé Shan) in the west is shown as distinct from the Nyenchen Tanglha range in the east. The Transhimalayas are geologically distinct from
2310-569: The TDA alongside the construction of peasant houses, huts, and cattle sheds. The TDA was dissolved in 1969 by the Government of Punjab. The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels. However, development of
2380-458: The Thal desert observed that Poaceae was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of herbaceous nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance. The only trees which grow in the desert include the Khagal , Shareen , Acacia , Beri (Ziziphus Jajoba) and Karir types. Ephemeral herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before
2450-790: The Transhimalayas have lost four wild herbivores over the last millennium or so of human habitation. Many parts of the Transhimalayas are now conserved. These include the Kangrinboqê National Forest Park in China, the Pin Valley National Park (675 km .) and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (1400 km .) in India and parts of the Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629 km .) in Nepal. In addition to protecting species diversity, restoration of
2520-463: The United Kingdom in 2011, 280,000 in the United States and smaller numbers in other countries. Standard Punjabi (sometimes referred to as Majhi) is the standard form of Punjabi used commonly in education and news broadcasting , and is based on the Majhi dialect . Such as the variety used on Google Translate , Standard Punjabi is also often used in official online services that employ Punjabi. It
2590-570: The United States found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant. It is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants ( gh, jh, ḍh, dh, bh ) lost their aspiration. In Punjabi, tone is induced by the loss of [h] in tonal consonants. Tonal consonants are any voiced aspirates /ʱ/ and the voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/ . These include the five voiced aspirated plosives bh , dh , ḍh , jh and gh (which are represented by their own letters in Gurmukhi),
2660-681: The Upper Indus sand, the sand dunes of the Thal are poorer in quartz and sedimentary to low-rank metasedimentary rock fragments. However, they are higher in feldspars , volcanic , metavolcanic and metabasite rock fragments and heavy minerals . The dune sand is thought to be derived from the Transhimalayan arcs (40–45%, predominantly from the Kohistan arc), the Karakorum-Hindukush Ranges (40–50%, of which
2730-849: The agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy, arid to semi-arid region. The desert primarily consists of the districts of Bhakkar , Layyah , Muzzafargarh and Kot Addu , all of whom display very similar geographical features, much of Khushab and Mianwali , as well as a portion of district Jhang lying to the west of river Jhelum. The main towns of the region, which see the greatest human activity, include Roda Thal, Mankera , Hayderabad Thal, Bharary, Dullewala , Piplan , Kundiyan, Chowk Azam , Saraye Muhajir, Mehmood Shaheed Thal, Rang Pur, Jandan Wala, Mari Shah Sakhira , Noorpur Thal , Daduwlala Thal, Katimar Thal, Shah Hussain Thal, and Muzafar Garh . The desert largely consists of ridges of sand dunes and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of flatter, more cultivable land. These sand dunes are
2800-402: The area available for agriculture, forcing villagers to relocate and reducing grassland and forest cover. This has also led to bharal shifting to lower elevations, where they raid crops. In turn, this attracts snow leopards to human settlements, where they prey on livestock. On the other hand, many wild herbivores are out-competed and displaced by livestock. A historical analysis suggests that
2870-404: The arrival of summer when climatic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert. Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example Harmal is used for indigestion and Kartuma is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, building livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes. The most commonly used species
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2940-758: The devoicing of the main five tonal consonants ( bh , dh , ḍh , jh , gh ). The Gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds, so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time. Some other languages in Pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions, including Burushaski , Gujari , Hindko , Kalami , Shina , and Torwali , though these (besides Hindko) seem to be independent of Punjabi. Transhimalaya The Trans himalaya (also spelled Trans-Himalaya ), or " Gangdise – Nyenchen Tanglha range " ( Chinese : 冈底斯-念青唐古拉山脉 ; pinyin : Gāngdǐsī-Niànqīngtánggǔlā Shānmài ),
3010-466: The eleventh-most widely spoken in India , and also present in the Punjabi diaspora in various countries. Approximate distribution of native Punjabi speakers (inc. Lahndic dialects ) (assuming a rounded total of 157 million) worldwide. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan , being the native language of 88.9 million people, or approximately 37% of the country's population. Beginning with
3080-488: The examples below are based on those provided in Punjabi University, Patiala 's Punjabi-English Dictionary . Level tone is found in about 75% of words and is described by some as absence of tone. There are also some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second. (Some writers describe this as a fourth tone.) However, a recent acoustic study of six Punjabi speakers in
3150-418: The far-north of Rajasthan and on the northwestern border of Haryana . It includes the dialects of Majhi , Malwai , Doabi , Puadhi and the extinct Lubanki . Sometimes, Dogri and Kangri are grouped into this category. "Western Punjabi" or "Lahnda" ( لہندا , lit. ' western ' ) is the name given to the diverse group of Punjabi varieties spoken in the majority of Pakistani Punjab ,
3220-623: The five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River . The name of the region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and was a translation of the Sanskrit name, Panchanada , which means 'Land of the Five Rivers'. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca ( पञ्च ), Greek pénte ( πέντε ), and Lithuanian Penki , all of which meaning 'five'; āb is cognate with Sanskrit áp ( अप् ) and with
3290-617: The granivorous birds. Larger species such as the Laggar and Peregrine falcons also prey on rodents , lizards and small birds found in the area. The history of the Thal Canal Project dates back to 1873 when the project was first conceived for the whole of the Thal Doab . The proposal to irrigate this area with water from the Indus River was repeatedly brought up for discussion in 1919, 1921, 1924, 1925, 1936 and in 1949. It
3360-453: The high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings. The vegetation of the Thal Desert consists predominantly of grasses and sedges which are most commonly used as fodder by the local population. Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as perennial herbs capable of enduring droughts, are also present. A floristic checklist of
3430-540: The language spoken by locals around the area of Lahore as Lahauri . The precursor stage of Punjabi between the 10th and 16th centuries is termed 'Old Punjabi', whilst the stage between the 16th and 19th centuries is termed as 'Medieval Punjabi'. The Arabic and Modern Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent . Since then, many Persian words have been incorporated into Punjabi (such as zamīn , śahir etc.) and are used with
3500-574: The latter three arise natively. Later, the letters ਜ਼ / ز , ਸ਼ / ش and ਫ਼ / ف began being used in English borrowings, with ਸ਼ / ش also used in Sanskrit borrowings . Punjabi has also had minor influence from and on neighbouring languages such as Sindhi , Haryanvi , Pashto and Hindustani . Note: In more formal contexts, hypercorrect Sanskritized versions of these words (ਪ੍ਰਧਾਨ pradhān for ਪਰਧਾਨ pardhān and ਪਰਿਵਾਰ parivār for ਪਰਵਾਰ parvār ) may be used. Modern Punjabi emerged in
3570-411: The lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of shepherds , farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers. Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as
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#17327725793383640-421: The months of June and August; however, there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south. It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels. Hailstorms , generated by air turbulence owing to
3710-602: The most rarely pronounced. The retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap . Some speakers soften the voiceless aspirates /t͡ʃʰ, pʰ, kʰ/ into fricatives /ɕ, f, x/ respectively. In rare cases, the /ɲ/ and /ŋ/ phonemes in Shahmukhi may be represented with letters from Sindhi . The /ɲ/ phoneme, which is more common than /ŋ/, is written as نی or نج depending on its phonetic preservation, e.g. نیاݨا /ɲaːɳaː/ (preserved ñ ) as opposed to کنج /kiɲd͡ʒ/ (assimilated into nj ). /ŋ/
3780-595: The natural vegetation has been replaced by perennial grasses , which may be a response to the anthropogenic pressure on the flora by human as well as animals. Livestock plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields. The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules. The desert's natural wildlife, inclusive of deer , jackals , parrots and wood-peckers , has seen drastic decline since
3850-454: The nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away. Punjabi language Europe North America Oceania Punjabi , sometimes spelled Panjabi , is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Punjab region of Pakistan and India . It is one of the most widely spoken native languages in the world with approximately 150 million native speakers. Punjabi
3920-535: The north closer to the Salt Range , but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular. The currently active Indus River floodplain stretches > 20 km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reaches even wider, covering areas of higher ground. These uplands are actively eroded by the Jhelum River and form up to scarps which face the floodplain. As compared to
3990-458: The other Himalayan ranges. They were probably formed by subduction of sediments from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. A consensus of different dating methods suggests that the older parts of this range formed in the upper Cretaceous (82-113 Mya), while the younger regions formed in the Eocene (40-60 Mya). The Transhimalays generally have a cold, arid montane climate. For example,
4060-541: The population of migratory and winter visitor species. After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May–June. Migratory birds include the Peregrine Falcon , Common quail , Sky Lark , Rosy Starling , Yellow Wagtail and the Desert Warbler. These species breed in western Siberia and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species
4130-503: The region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the ecology of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the biodiversity of the area has also decreased. The Thal desert is deficit in resources and infrastructure with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation. Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to
4200-415: The region. There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. Saraiki , mainly the Thali language , is the primary language spoken by locals however Punjabi is also widely used in the portion lying in the Jhang and Khushab districts. Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of
4270-539: The remaining half sees semi-arid climatic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm). The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind erosion that leads to local crop damage. Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32 C - 40 C and average around 35 C between June and July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45C. Dust storms , resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in
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#17327725793384340-472: The sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations. Gram ( chickpea ) is the most successfully cultivated crop in the region's arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan. The Thal desert has also seen severe erosion to its natural vegetation as a result of anthropogenic activities such as human settlement and land cultivation, which led to desertification . Much of
4410-458: The sparsely populated Thal Desert. In July 1949, the Punjab Government enacted a law for the constitution of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950. Throughout its lifetime, the TDA initiated a number of projects including the Sheep Breeding Scheme in 1952, the Open Auction Scheme in 1954 and the Peasant Grant Scheme of 1955. The Peasant Grant Scheme, which
4480-465: The standard literary and administrative language and Prakrit languages evolved into many regional languages in different parts of India. All these languages are called Prakrit languages (Sanskrit: प्राकृत , prākṛta ) collectively. Paishachi Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Paishachi Prakrit gave rise to Paishachi Apabhraṃśa ,
4550-491: The summer months. This has made crop cultivation challenging as the soil becomes difficult to bind, leading to extensive erosion and losses for the farming community. In the winter, temperatures vary between 3 C and 8 C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north. In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point. The Thal Desert's rainfall patterns are low and erratic with mean annual values ranging between 150 and 350mm. The majority of precipitation occurs between
4620-539: The terms Eastern and Western Punjabi can simply refer to all the Punjabi varieties spoken in India and Pakistan respectively, whether or not they are linguistically Eastern/Western. While a vowel length distinction between short and long vowels exists, reflected in modern Gurmukhi orthographical conventions, it is secondary to the vowel quality contrast between centralised vowels /ɪ ə ʊ/ and peripheral vowels /iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/ in terms of phonetic significance. The peripheral vowels have nasal analogues . There
4690-434: The widespread poverty in the area. The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less than 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate. Agriculture and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with gram flour being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats. Livestock productivity
4760-514: Was lexically influenced by Portuguese (words like almārī ), Greek (words like dām ), Japanese (words like rikśā ), Chinese (words like cāh , līcī , lukāṭh ) and English (words like jajj , apīl , māsṭar ), though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. In fact, the sounds / z / (ਜ਼ / ز ژ ذ ض ظ ), / ɣ / (ਗ਼ / غ ), / q / (ਕ਼ / ق ), / ʃ / (ਸ਼ / ش ), / x / (ਖ਼ / خ ) and / f / (ਫ਼ / ف ) are all borrowed from Persian, but in some instances
4830-458: Was aimed at refugees and migrators from India , offered a 15 acers incentive for settlement in the Thal desert under a number of varying conditions, one of which required the land to only be used for agricultural purposes. Over 110 villages were also established by the TDA over its lifespan which enabled the settlement of over 31377 families of refugees and migrants in the Thal Desert. Facilities such as schools and post offices were also provided by
4900-426: Was repeatedly shelved because of the argument that it would severely hurt water availability to the lower riparians . The project proposal came under discussion again in 1975 when the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC) refused to endorse the project. On August 16, 2001, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf inaugurated the 30-billion-rupee Greater Thal Canal project (GTC). The second phase of
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