68-479: The Black Moth (1921) is a Georgian era romance novel by the British author Georgette Heyer , set around 1751. The Black Moth was Heyer's debut novel , published when Heyer was nineteen. It was a commercial success. The story follows Lord Jack Carstares, an English nobleman who becomes a highwayman after taking the blame during a cheating scandal years before. One day, he rescues Miss Diana Beauleigh when she
136-474: A "natural discourse" between the male protagonists. The Encyclopaedia of British Writers adds that The Black Moth is "typical" of many later Heyer novels, as it has a "historical setting, aristocratic characters, and exciting plot". As Jack lives as a highwayman, James Devlin also notes themes of violence, suspense and criminality that appear in other Heyer stories such as The Masqueraders (1928) and Faro's Daughter (1941). Spillman also opines that Diana
204-510: A carriage, but fails when his prey notices Jack's pistol is not loaded. The supposed victim, Miles O’Hara, a Justice of the Peace , arrests Jack. Recognizing Jack is a gentleman, Miles takes him back to his residence to interview him. Miles is delighted to discover the outlaw is actually his old friend, estranged since the gambling incident years earlier. Lavinia's brother, the Duke of Andover—called
272-626: A childhood mentor, the village priest who educated her. This discussion confirms for Avon what he had suspected: Léonie is the legitimate child of the Comte and his wife and was switched at birth with the Bonnard's newborn son, who has been raised as the Comte's heir ever since, as the Comte feared his wife would not bear any other children and he was eager to prevent his younger brother Armand from becoming his heir. The dissipated Avon has come to care for Léonie so while he continues his scheme of revenge on
340-512: A farmer. After this excursion to Versailles, the Comte becomes greatly interested in Léon and attempts to purchase him. Meanwhile, both Avon and his friend, Hugh Davenant, have realised that Léon is actually a girl, Léonie. Léonie is wildly devoted to Avon, seeing him as her saviour from a life of abuse, rather than as dissolute and scandalous, as the rest of the fashionable world views him. The Duke journeys into Champagne, where Léonie grew up, to meet
408-467: A growing evangelical, revivalist faction, the "Low Church". Its leaders included William Wilberforce and Hannah More . It reached the upper class through the Clapham Sect . It did not seek political reform, but rather the opportunity to save souls through political action by freeing slaves, abolishing the duel, prohibiting cruelty to children and animals, stopping gambling, and avoiding frivolity on
476-421: A highwayman. In public he calls himself Sir Anthony Ferndale. Jack discovers his father has died but refuses to take up his role as the new earl of Wyncham, preferring that his brother enjoy the family's privileges in his place. The amiable Richard, who still feels guilty over his role in his brother's social ruin, refuses. This decision displeases Richard's spoiled wife, Lavinia. A disguised Jack attempts to rob
544-489: A large and powerful Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. Most of the companies earned good profits, and enormous personal fortunes were created in India, but there was one major fiasco that caused heavy losses. The South Sea Bubble
612-452: A large party, he tells the true story of Léonie's life, then embellishes it by adding that she has drowned herself in the Seine . This breaks her mother, whose open grief betrays the Comte's guilt. Knowing he is ruined in society, the Comte shoots himself. His despised brother becomes the new Comte. Avon reunites with Léonie, they express their true feelings, and they marry. The novel's title
680-616: A new era of poetry, characterised by vivid and colourful language, evocative of elevating ideas and themes. The paintings of Thomas Gainsborough , Sir Joshua Reynolds and the young J. M. W. Turner and John Constable illustrated the changing world of the Georgian period – as did the work of designers like Capability Brown , the landscape designer . Fine examples of distinctive Georgian architecture are Edinburgh's New Town , Georgian Dublin , Grainger Town in Newcastle upon Tyne ,
748-482: A scoundrel and unworthy of her love. He returns to the O'Hara residence. Richard becomes upset when Lavinia spends too much time with one of her old suitors, Captain Harold Lovelace. Richard can keep silent no longer and plans to reveal his cheating to a large party, to the dismay of Lavinia. Richard gives her permission to leave him and elope with Lovelace, but she realises she truly loves her husband and sees
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#1732776028821816-399: A share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. The future prime minister Robert Walpole managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some suffering extreme loss fled to exile or committed suicide. The beginning of
884-403: A tavern keeper. He takes the boy as his page , and as such can parade the boy throughout French high society, even at a party at Versailles held by Louis XV . The Duke displays Léon before the Comte's wife and his son and heir. He notes the resemblance of the son, Henri, to Léon's brother, Jean Bonnard, a tavern keeper. He also notes that the boy, Léon's age, prefers rural life, and wants to be
952-414: Is almost abducted by the Duke of Andover. Jack and Diana fall in love but his troubled past and current profession threaten their happiness. Based on a story she had written for her brother and published with the encouragement of her father, modern critics have considered it a flawed work; they have observed characteristics Heyer included in her later works. The British writer Georgette Heyer (1902–1974)
1020-553: Is sometimes still referred to as such; see Georgian Poetry . These Old Shades These Old Shades is a 1926 historical romance written by British novelist Georgette Heyer . The novel is set around 1755: Heyer refers to the Duke of Avon's participation in the 1745 uprising as ten years previous; in addition the Prince of Condé is said to be about 20 years old. However, she also refers to Madame de Pompadour as actively involved with Louis XV , whereas her relationship with
1088-491: Is taken from Austin Dobson 's epilogue poem to his collection of essays Eighteenth Century Vignettes . Devil's Cub (1932) follows These Old Shades with the adventures of Avon's and Léonie's son Dominic, a shockingly selfish and indulged young man who elopes with a poor relation of one of his father's friends. An Infamous Army (1937) completes the family saga with the Duke of Avon's great-granddaughter, Barbara, marrying
1156-539: Is the only Heyer heroine to be "unironic [and] untraditional", as the novel is dominated by the doings of its male characters. Diana is relegated to the background, "as if the author had little interest in her own heroine". In later Heyer novels, Spillman writes, the heroines show more agency and will. In 2012, Diana Wallace wrote of similarities between The Black Moth and the works of Jeffery Farnol and Rafael Sabatini , as well as Baroness Orczy 's story The Scarlet Pimpernel . Georgian era The Georgian era
1224-534: The Church of England gained strength in the late 18th and early 19th century. The movement challenged the traditional religious sensibility that emphasised a code of honour for the upper class, and suitable behaviour for everyone else, together with faithful observances of rituals. John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers preached revivalist religion, trying to convert individuals to a personal relationship with Christ through Bible reading, regular prayer, and especially
1292-844: The Tower of London and overthrow the government. This too was thwarted, with the conspirators executed or transported to Australia. Historians have long explored the importance of the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the American Enlightenment, while debating the very existence of the English Enlightenment. English historian Peter Gay argues that the Scottish Enlightenment "was a small and cohesive group of friends – David Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, and others – who knew one another intimately and talked to one another incessantly". Education
1360-572: The humanist and rationalist outlook of the European Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for
1428-661: The macaroni style that was soon to become fashionable at the time. It was a time of immense social change in Britain, with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution which began the process of intensifying class divisions , and the emergence of rival political parties like the Whigs and Tories . In rural areas, the Agricultural Revolution saw huge changes to the movement of people and
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#17327760288211496-540: The "Devil" among society—is sarcastic, darkly humoured and manipulative. He desires Miss Diana Beauleigh, a young woman he met in Bath, and is almost successful in abducting her when a disguised Jack encounters them. The two duel, and Jack triumphs over Andover and frees Diana. Jack is injured and recovers at Diana's home. He does not reveal his identity, instead referring to himself as Mr. Carr. The two fall in love but Jack cannot allow himself to be with her, as he sees himself as
1564-422: The 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All
1632-789: The 1791 Priestley Riots in Birmingham, the mob targeted Dissenters, including the prominent Radical Joseph Priestley . The Black Act of 1723 , sponsored by Robert Walpole, strengthened the criminal code for the benefit of the upper class. It specified over 200 capital crimes, many with intensified punishment. The crime of arson, for example, was expanded to include of burning or the threat of burning haystacks. The legal rights of defendants were something different from today. For example, suspects who refused to surrender within 40 days could be summarily judged guilty and sentenced to execution if apprehended. Local villages were punished if they failed to find, prosecute and convict alleged criminals, due to
1700-514: The Comte, he takes Léonie to England with him where he announces his intention to make her his ward. He teaches her to be a lady, while letting her be known as Léonie de Bonnard. The Comte has become increasingly desperate and kidnaps her and carries her to France. Léonie escapes from him with the help of the Duke's younger brother, Lord Rupert. The party is then joined by Fanny Marling, the Duke's sister, and her husband, Edward Marling. Once in France,
1768-466: The Duke introduces Léonie into Parisian society, where she makes a big splash. A rumour comes to Léonie's ears that she is the Comte's illegitimate child—the family likeness is very striking. The Comte then persuades Léonie that her illegitimacy is destroying the Duke's reputation, as society views her as his lover. Her distress at this leads her to flee to live with the kindly village priest of her childhood. This event spurs Avon to complete his revenge. At
1836-640: The Georgian Quarter of Liverpool and much of Bristol and Bath . The music of John Field , Handel , Haydn , Clementi , Johann Christian Bach , William Boyce , Mozart , Beethoven and Mendelssohn was some of the most popular in England at that time. The height of the Grand Tour coincided with the 18th century and is associated with Georgian high society. This custom saw young upper-class Englishmen travelling to Italy by way of France and
1904-623: The Georgian era witnessed rioting by Jacobite and High Church mobs in protest against the Hanoverian succession and which included attacks on the Dissenters ' places of worship. These included the 1714 coronation riots , which occurred on the day of George I's coronation, and the riots of 1715 . In response, Parliament passed the Riot Act , which granted the authorities greater powers to put down rioting. Although religious toleration
1972-535: The Government a petition. The Luddites destroyed and damaged machinery in the industrial north-west of England. The Peterloo Massacre in 1819 began as a protest rally which saw 60,000 people gathering to protest about their living standards, but was quelled by military action and saw eleven people killed and 400 wounded. The Cato Street Conspiracy of 1820 sought to blow up the Cabinet and then move on to storm
2040-554: The King ended at about 1750. Fortune favours Justin Alastair, the notorious Duke of Avon, casting in his way, one Paris night, the means to revenge himself on his enemy, the Comte de Saint-Vire. Avon literally collides with an abused boy, Léon Bonnard, whose red hair, deep blue eyes and black eyebrows proclaim him a child of the Comte. Not knowing the exact relationship between the boy and Saint-Vire, Avon purchases him from his brother,
2108-532: The Netherlands for intellectual and cultural purposes. Notable historian Edward Gibbon remarked of the Grand Tour as useful for intellectual self-improvement. The journey and stay abroad would usually take a year or more. This would eventually lead to the basis for the acquisition and spread of art collections back to England as well as fashions and paintings from Italy. The custom also helped popularise
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2176-467: The Netherlands overwhelmed Britain, which stood alone without allies. The loss of the 13 American Colonies was a national disaster. Commentators at home and abroad speculated on the end of Britain as a great power . In Europe, the wars with France dragged on for nearly a quarter of a century, 1793–1815. Britain organised coalition after coalition, using its superb financial system to subsidise infantry forces, and built up its Navy to maintain control of
2244-630: The Sabbath; they read the Bible every day. All souls were equal in God's view, but not all bodies, so evangelicals did not challenge the hierarchical structure of English society. As R. J. Morris noted in his 1983 article "Voluntary Societies and British Urban Elites, 1780-1850," "[m]id-eighteenth-century Britain was a stable society in the sense that those with material and ideological power were able to defend this power in an effective and dynamic manner," but "in
2312-668: The West Indies. China would be next on the agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England. Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximise exports from and minimise imports to
2380-571: The architecture of Robert Adam , John Nash and James Wyatt and the emergence of the Gothic Revival style, which hearkened back to a supposed golden age of building design. The flowering of the arts was most vividly shown in the emergence of the Romantic poets, principally through Samuel Taylor Coleridge , William Wordsworth , Percy Bysshe Shelley , William Blake , John Keats , Lord Byron and Robert Burns . Their work ushered in
2448-534: The cheating scandal, clearing his brother's name. Jack and Diana embrace and get married. They avoid a scandal with Andover, as the latter persuades them that any news of the abduction will hurt Diana's reputation. The initial publication of The Black Moth was by Constable , and it was published in the United States by Houghton and Mifflin . The novel was a commercial success. In a contemporary review published in 1921, The Times Literary Supplement deemed
2516-484: The culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. The coffee-house culture provided an ideal venue for enlightened conversation. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent, and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment. The British sponsored numerous scientists who made major discoveries in
2584-556: The decline of small communities, the growth of the cities and the beginnings of an integrated transportation system but, nevertheless, as rural towns and villages declined and work became scarce there was a huge increase in emigration to Canada, the North American colonies (which became the United States during the period) and other parts of the British Empire . In England, the evangelical movement inside and outside
2652-593: The demise of classical architecture. Victorians typically were disapproving of the times of the previous era. By the late 19th century, the "Georgian era" was a byword for a degenerate culture. Charles Abbey in 1878 argued that the Church of England: Note: In the twentieth century, the period 1910–1936 was informally called the Georgian Era during the reign of George V (following the Edwardian Era ), and
2720-403: The error in her spoiled ways. The two reconcile and embrace happily. The Duke of Andover succeeds in kidnapping Diana, desiring to marry her. He brings her back to Andover Court, his estate. Jack learns of the abduction and arrives in time to duel Andover. Richard, Miles, and Andover's brother Lord Andrew arrive and stop the fight right as Jack collapses from fatigue. Richard confesses his role in
2788-478: The exact ending, with the deaths of George IV in 1830 or William IV in 1837 as the usual marker. In most social and cultural trends, the timing varied. The emergence of Romanticism and literature began as early as the 1780s, but religious changes took much longer and were incomplete until around a century later. The 1830s saw important developments such as the emergence of the Oxford Movement in religion and
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2856-521: The hero of An Infamous Army . It is also a sequel to Regency Buck (1935). These Old Shades was itself originally intended to be a sequel to Heyer's first novel The Black Moth (1921), which would redeem the devilish Belmanoir. But as The Black Moth was a melodrama and a sequel per se would not work in with the plot, she decided to make the new novel stand alone, renamed many characters and made them 'shades' of their former selves. After These Old Shades became popular despite its release during
2924-535: The homeland from invasion) was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic Royal Navy so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across
2992-492: The illness of his father George III. The transition to the Victorian era was characterized in religion, social values, and the arts by a shift in tone away from rationalism and toward romanticism and mysticism. The term Georgian is typically used in the contexts of social and political history and architecture . The term Augustan literature is often used for Augustan drama , Augustan poetry and Augustan prose in
3060-647: The increase in crime at the time. With the ending of the War with France in 1815, Great Britain entered a period of greater economic depression and political uncertainty, characterised by social discontent and unrest. The Radical political party published a leaflet called The Political Register , also known as "The Two Penny Trash" to its rivals. The so-called March of the Blanketeers saw 400 spinners and weavers march from Manchester to London in March 1817 to hand
3128-775: The individual and society as a whole. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, economics, history, architecture, and medicine. Leaders included Francis Hutcheson , David Hume , Adam Smith , Dugald Stewart , Thomas Reid , William Robertson , Henry Home, Lord Kames , Adam Ferguson , John Playfair , Joseph Black and James Hutton . The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks and standard surveys make no room for an English Enlightenment. Some European surveys include England, others ignore it but do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison , Edward Gibbon , John Locke , Isaac Newton , Alexander Pope and Joshua Reynolds . According to Derek Hirst ,
3196-770: The most prominent of the many explorers and geographers using the resources of the Royal Navy to develop the Empire and make many scientific discoveries, especially in Australia and the Pacific. Instead of trying to recover the lost colonies in North America, the British built up in Asia a largely new Second British Empire. That new empire flourished during the Victorian and Edwardian eras which were to follow. The era
3264-487: The new novel stand alone, renamed many characters and made them 'shades' of their former selves for These Old Shades . Scholars have perceived The Black Moth ' s influence on Heyer's later works. In an essay published in 2012, K. Elizabeth Spillman describes the novel as "improbable" and "heavily derivative" but notes characteristics visible in Heyer's other books: the centrality of friendship, seamless action scenes, and
3332-594: The nineteen-year-old girl's literary debut and was published as The Black Moth . The story is set during the Georgian era in the 1750s, and follows Lord Jack Carstares, the eldest son of the Earl of Wyncham. Six years ago, Jack took the blame when his younger brother Richard cheated at cards. Jack consequently faced social exile and fled England for the European continent. He has now secretly returned, robbing carriages as
3400-569: The period 1700–1740s. The term Augustan refers to the acknowledgement of the influence of Latin literature from the ancient Roman Republic . The term Georgian era is not applied to the time of the two 20th-century British kings of this name, George V and George VI . Those periods are simply referred to as Georgian . Georgian society and its preoccupations were well portrayed in the novels of writers such as Daniel Defoe , Jonathan Swift , Samuel Richardson , Henry Fielding , Laurence Sterne , Mary Shelley and Jane Austen , characterised by
3468-947: The primary enemy. Major episodes included the Seven Years' War , known in America as the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). The British won most of the wars except for the American Revolution, where the combined weight of the United States, France, Spain and
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#17327760288213536-399: The protagonist Jack a "fascinating hero of romance" and added that the novel was "a well-filled story which keeps the reader pleased". These Old Shades , which came out in 1926, was originally intended to be a sequel to The Black Moth , which would redeem the devilish Belmanoir. But as The Black Moth was a melodrama and a sequel per se would not work in with the plot, she decided to make
3604-494: The realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on
3672-614: The revival experience. Wesley himself preached 52,000 times, calling on men and women to "redeem the time" and save their souls. Wesley always operated inside the Church of England, but at his death, his followers set up outside institutions that became the Methodist Church . It stood alongside the traditional Nonconformist churches, Presbyterians, Congregationalist, Baptists, Unitarians, and Quakers. The Nonconformist churches, however, were less influenced by revivalism. The Church of England remained dominant in England but it had
3740-640: The seas. Victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) and the Battle of Waterloo (1815) under Admiral Lord Nelson and the Duke of Wellington brought a sense of triumphalism and political reaction. The expansion of empire in Asia was primarily the work of the British East India Company , especially under the leadership of Robert Clive . Captain James Cook was perhaps
3808-418: The small laboratories. Joseph Priestley investigated electricity. Chemist Henry Cavendish identified hydrogen in 1772. Daniel Rutherford isolated nitrogen in 1774, while Priestley discovered oxygen and ammonia. Antiquarians and archaeologists mapped the past. In medicine, in 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation against smallpox to Britain, and by 1740 it was in wide usage. Guy's Hospital
3876-465: The trends were discussed in depth at the newly established coffee houses . Education was also a priority in England. English institutions expanded rapdly, including the formation of the Royal Society , which is the oldest national scientific institution in the world. Roy Porter argues that the reason for the neglect was the assumption that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it
3944-629: The twenty years after 1780, this consensus structure was broken." Anglican Evangelicalism thus, as historian Lisa Wood has argued in her book Modes of Discipline: Women, Conservatism, and the Novel After the French Revolution , functioned as a tool of ruling-class social control, buffering the discontent that in France had inaugurated a revolution; yet it contained within itself the seeds for challenge to gender and class hierarchies. The Georgian period saw continual warfare, with France
4012-689: The world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the Muscovy Company set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included the East India Company , and the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it
4080-465: Was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The South Sea Company was a private business corporation supposedly set up much like the other trading companies, with a focus on South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million through market manipulation and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day, from £130
4148-582: Was a period in British history from 1714 to c. 1830–1837 , named after the Hanoverian kings George I , George II , George III and George IV . The definition of the Georgian era is also often extended to include the relatively short reign of William IV , which ended with his death in 1837. The subperiod that is the Regency era is defined by the regency of George IV as Prince of Wales during
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#17327760288214216-535: Was a priority in Scotland, both at the local level and especially in four universities. The Enlightenment culture was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions that took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as The Select Society and, later, The Poker Club as well as within Scotland's ancient universities ( St Andrews , Glasgow , Edinburgh and Aberdeen ). Sharing
4284-545: Was born in Wimbledon, London , and grew up amidst many literary influences. Her father, George Heyer, was an author and former member of the Wimbledon Literary and Scientific Society, and as a teenager she befriended the future writers Joanna Cannan and Carola Oman . In 1921, the elder Heyer encouraged his daughter to publish a story she had written for her haemophiliac younger brother Boris. This story became
4352-562: Was extensive by the standards of continental Europe, hostility to religious minorities was widespread in Britain during the eighteenth century and sometimes expressed itself in rioting. The Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753 was repealed a year after it had been passed because of widespread opposition and the 1780 Gordon Riots in London were directed against Catholics after the Papists Act 1778 removed some of their legal disabilities. During
4420-667: Was founded in 1721; the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh in 1729; Queen Charlotte's maternity hospital in 1739 and the Middlesex Hospital in 1745. Asylums for the mentally ill were established, notably Bethel Hospital in Norwich (1713); a ward for incurable lunatics at Guy's Hospital (1728); and lunatic hospitals in Manchester (1766) and York in (1777)—York was the first to be called an asylum. Historians debate
4488-467: Was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s, England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals, such as Edward Gibbon , Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supported the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England, and had succeeded so that
4556-482: Was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, and Daniel Defoe boasted: While the other major powers were primarily motivated towards territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, and the House of Hohenzollern ), Britain had a different set of primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal (besides protecting
4624-482: Was re-established as the Royal African Company in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in each of the four major wars, 1740 to 1783, paid off handsomely in terms of trade. Even the loss of the 13 colonies was made up by a very favourable trading relationship with the new United States of America. British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and
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