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126-428: The main protagonists of the stories are Trurl and Klapaucius, two "constructor" robots who travel the galaxy, constructing fantastic machines. Nearly every character is either a humanoid robot or some sort of intelligent machine , with few living creatures ever appearing . These robots have for the most part organized themselves into proto- feudal societies with strict ranks and structures. The timeline of each story

252-407: A gulag camp. Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war. Though many people equate protagonists with the term hero and possessing heroic qualities, it is not necessary, as even villainous characters can be protagonists. For example Michael Corleone from The Godfather (1972–1990) film series (1978–1983). In some cases, the protagonist

378-422: A hero (masculine) or heroine (feminine) protagonist is typically admired for their achievements and noble qualities. Heroes are lauded for their strength, courage, virtuousness, and honor, and are considered to be the "good guys" of the narrative. Examples include DC Comics' Superman (hero) and Katniss Everdeen from The Hunger Games (heroine). An antihero (sometimes spelled as anti-hero) or antiheroine

504-513: A metacognitive component by holding that an awareness of the conflict is necessary for the absurd to arise. Some arguments in favor of absurdism focus on the human insignificance in the universe, on the role of death , or on the implausibility or irrationality of positing an ultimate purpose. Objections to absurdism often contend that life is in fact meaningful or point out certain problematic consequences or inconsistencies of absurdism. Defenders of absurdism often complain that it does not receive

630-572: A believer; just the opposite, he has explained that he is not a believer—in order to illuminate faith negatively. Kierkegaard provides an example in Fear and Trembling (1843), which was published under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio . In the story of Abraham in the Book of Genesis , Abraham is told by God to kill his son Isaac . Just as Abraham is about to kill Isaac, an angel stops Abraham from doing so. Kierkegaard believes that through virtue of

756-469: A civilization, and that it must struggle through the process of building a society itself. Another heavily present theme is the persistent failure of literality . Trurl and Klapaucius are creatures supposed to be defined by rationality, but their emotions and irrational behavior often cause failures in the most spectacular fashions. In "Altruizine," a substance that causes everyone to feel each other's emotions causes immense widespread suffering. The idea that

882-414: A discrepancy between how seriously we take our lives and the lives of others on the one hand, and how arbitrary they and the world at large seem to be on the other hand. This can be understood in terms of importance and caring: it is absurd that people continue to care about these matters even though they seem to lack importance on an objective level. The collision between these two sides can be defined as

1008-467: A form of epistemic humbleness. The impression that life is absurd may in some cases have serious psychological consequences like triggering an existential crisis. In this regard, an awareness both of absurdism itself and the possible responses to it can be central to avoiding or resolving such consequences. ... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in

1134-444: A general sense, the absurd is that which lacks a sense, often because it involves some form of contradiction . The absurd is paradoxical in the sense that it cannot be grasped by reason . But in the context of absurdism, the term is usually used in a more specific sense. According to most definitions, it involves a conflict, discrepancy, or collision between two things. Opinions differ on what these two things are. For example, it

1260-489: A justification external to them. Another argument proceeds indirectly by pointing out how various great thinkers have obvious irrational elements in their systems of thought. These purported mistakes of reason are then taken as signs of absurdism that were meant to hide or avoid it. From this perspective, the tendency to posit the existence of a benevolent God may be seen as a form of defense mechanism or wishful thinking to avoid an unsettling and inconvenient truth. This

1386-520: A miniature mechanical kingdom for a tyrant to play with, was also an inspiration of the game SimCity . An elaborate interactive Google Doodle inspired by the illustrations of Daniel Mróz in The Cyberiad was created and published in his honor for the 60th anniversary of Lem's first published book: The Astronauts . Protagonist A protagonist (from Ancient Greek πρωταγωνιστής prōtagōnistḗs  'one who plays

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1512-406: A paleface to try and win her love, but when a true human is brought before her, the incredible ugliness of the human makes it obvious that the prince is only pretending. The Princess forces them to duel to the death, and Prince Ferrix easily crushes the human. However, in the process, Princess Crystal realizes how hideous humans are and falls in love with Ferrix, and the two live happily ever after, in

1638-543: A parody of Chivalric romance . Other parodied tropes include the Sorcerer's Apprentice and the legend of King Midas . By parodying these with Robotics, Lem reevaluates the ethical and moral considerations of these myths. The whole series was published in the 1965 Polish collection Cyberiada by Wydawnictwo Literackie and also included stories published previously elsewhere. Polish title: Siedem wypraw Trurla i Klapaucjusza All these stories were first published in

1764-423: A poet named Thespis introduced the idea of one actor stepping out and engaging in a dialogue with the chorus. This was the invention of tragedy, and occurred about 536 B.C. Then the poet Aeschylus , in his plays, introduced a second actor, inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters. Sophocles then wrote plays that included a third actor. A description of the protagonist's origin cited that during

1890-493: A seemingly meaningless world. This conflict can be between rational man and an irrational universe, between intention and outcome, or between subjective assessment and objective worth, but the precise definition of the term is disputed. Absurdism claims that, due to one or more of these conflicts, existence as a whole is absurd . It differs in this regard from the less global thesis that some particular situations, persons, or phases in life are absurd. Various components of

2016-458: A set of moral themes. These themes include the randomness of existence , the imperfection of the human form, and artificial life . Aside from the obvious themes about robotics, the work also contains more overt criticisms of the conditions under which it was written, as some stories having directly political messages. Nearly every aristocratic ruler is portrayed as inept or corrupt, ruling over their subjects with brutality and fear. This philosophy

2142-567: A supporting protagonist appears, the story is told from the perspective of a character who appears to be minor. This character may be more peripheral from the events of the story and are not as involved within the "main action" of the plot. The supporting protagonist may be telling the story while viewing another character as the main influence of the plot. One example is Nick in The Great Gatsby . Euripides ' play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists, though one at

2268-432: A time. Phaedra is the protagonist of the first half, who dies partway through the play. Her stepson, the titular Hippolytus, assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play. In Henrik Ibsen 's play The Master Builder , the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness. The young woman, Hilda Wangel, whose actions lead to the death of Solness, is the antagonist. In Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet , Romeo

2394-416: A typical translation, and took heavy liberties in regards to words, sentence structure, and especially poetry . Though this inventive approach to translation can be controversial, in The Cyberiad it has been widely praised as resulting in an immensely successful final result. It has been held up by numerous scholars as a possible standard for the translations of more complex works. Lem himself heavily praised

2520-427: A whole but that, if one seriously tried to do so anyway, its ungrounded circularity might collapse and lead to madness. An important disagreement within the academic literature about the nature of absurdism and the absurd focuses specifically on whether the components responsible for the conflict are internal or external. According to the traditional position, the absurd has both internal and external components: it

2646-673: A whole is absurd would be a good candidate for the more important facts. Absurdism has its origins in the work of the 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard , who chose to confront the crisis that humans face with the Absurd by developing his own existentialist philosophy . Absurdism as a belief system was born of the European existentialist movement that ensued, specifically when Camus rejected certain aspects of that philosophical line of thought and published his essay The Myth of Sisyphus . The aftermath of World War II provided

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2772-456: Is a category, and the most developed thought is required to define the Christian absurd accurately and with conceptual correctness. The absurd is a category, the negative criterion, of the divine or of the relationship to the divine. When the believer has faith, the absurd is not the absurd—faith transforms it, but in every weak moment it is again more or less absurd to him. The passion of faith

2898-402: Is a lack, not just of a higher purpose in life, but also of moral values. These two sides can be linked by the idea that without a higher purpose, nothing is worth pursuing that could give one's life meaning. This worthlessness seems to apply to morally relevant actions equally as to other issues. In this sense, "[b]elief in the meaning of life always implies a scale of values" while "[b]elief in

3024-593: Is a main character in a story who lacks conventional heroic qualities and attributes such as idealism, courage, and morality. Examples include Holden Caulfield from The Catcher in the Rye , Scarlett O'Hara from Gone With the Wind , Jay Gatsby from The Great Gatsby , and Walter White from Breaking Bad . A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragedy. Examples include Oedipus from Oedipus Rex and Prince Hamlet from Shakespeare's Hamlet . The protagonist

3150-425: Is a serious mismatch between one's intentions and reality. For example, a person struggling to break down a heavy front door is absurd if the house they are trying to break into lacks a back wall and could easily be entered on this route. But the philosophical thesis of absurdism is much more wide-reaching since it is not restricted to individual situations, persons, or phases in life. Instead, it asserts that life, or

3276-407: Is applied to the world as a whole including God, it is bound to fail its search for a reason or an explanation, no matter what the world is like. In this sense, absurdity arises from the conflict between features of ourselves: "our capacity to recognize the arbitrariness of our ultimate concerns and our simultaneous incapacity to relinquish our commitment to them". This view has the side-effect that

3402-501: Is based on the attempt of assessing standards of what matters and why it matters. It has been argued that the only way to answer such a question is in reference to these standards themselves. This means that, in the end, it depends only on us, that "what seems to us important or serious or valuable would not seem so if we were differently constituted". The circularity and groundlessness of these standards themselves are then used to argue for absurdism. The most common criticism of absurdism

3528-407: Is based on the idea that if nothing really matters then the human response toward this fact does not matter either. The term "absurdism" is most closely associated with the philosophy of Albert Camus . However, important precursors and discussions of the absurd are also found in the works of Søren Kierkegaard . Absurdism is intimately related to various other concepts and theories. Its basic outlook

3654-445: Is closely related to the idea that humans have an inborn desire for meaning and purpose, which is dwarfed by a meaningless and indifferent universe. For example, René Descartes aims to build a philosophical system based on the absolute certainty of the " I think, therefore I am " just to introduce without a proper justification the existence of a benevolent and non-deceiving God in a later step in order to ensure that we can know about

3780-542: Is convinced that he has done nothing wrong. Throughout the story, he desperately tries to discover what crimes he is accused of and how to defend himself. But in the end, he lets go of his futile attempts and submits to his execution without ever finding out what he was accused of. The absurd nature of the world is exemplified by the mysterious and impenetrable functioning of the judicial system, which seems indifferent to Josef K. and resists all of his attempts of making sense of it. Philosophers of absurdism often complain that

3906-423: Is due to the discrepancy between man's internal desire to lead a meaningful life and the external meaninglessness of the world. On this view, humans have among their desires some transcendent aspirations that seek a higher form of meaning in life. The absurd arises since these aspirations are ignored by the world, which is indifferent to our "need for validation of the importance of our concerns". This implies that

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4032-496: Is his own antagonist). Sometimes, a work will have a false protagonist , who may seem to be the protagonist, but then may disappear unexpectedly. The character Marion in Alfred Hitchcock 's film Psycho (1960) is an example. A novel may contain a number of narratives, each with its own protagonist. Alexander Solzhenitsyn 's The First Circle , for example, depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in

4158-430: Is inspired by existentialist philosophy. However, existentialism includes additional theoretical commitments and often takes a more optimistic attitude toward the possibility of finding or creating meaning in one's life. Absurdism and nihilism share the belief that life is meaningless, but absurdists do not treat this as an isolated fact and are instead interested in the conflict between the human desire for meaning and

4284-600: Is linked to a Greek myth ( Sisyphus , Prometheus , Nemesis ) and explores specific themes and objects; the common thread remaining the solitude and despair of the human, constantly driven by the tireless search for the meaning of the world and of life. I had a precise plan when I started my work: I wanted to first express negation. In three forms. Romanesque: it was The Stranger . Drama: Caligula and The Misunderstanding . Ideological: The Myth of Sisyphus . I wouldn't have been able to talk about it if I hadn't experienced it; I have no imagination. But for me it was, if you like,

4410-460: Is meaningful, which in its turn has meaning only because it is related to yet another meaningful thing, and so on. This infinite chain and the corresponding absurdity could be avoided if some things had intrinsic or ultimate meaning, i.e. if their meaning did not depend on the meaning of something else. For example, if things on the large scale, like God or fighting poverty, had meaning, then our everyday engagements could be meaningful by standing in

4536-419: Is meaningful. For example, a word is meaningful because of its relation to a language or someone's life could be meaningful because this person dedicates their efforts to a higher meaningful project, like serving God or fighting poverty. An important consequence of this characterization of meaning is that it threatens to lead to an infinite regress : at each step, something is meaningful because something else

4662-488: Is not a human: in Richard Adams ' novel Watership Down , a group of anthropomorphised rabbits, led by the protagonist Hazel, escape their warren after seeing a vision of its destruction, starting a perilous journey to find a new home. Absurdism Absurdism is the philosophical theory that the universe is irrational and meaningless. It states that trying to find meaning leads people into conflict with

4788-484: Is not always conventionally good. Contrasting the hero protagonist, a villain protagonist is a protagonist who is a villain , driving the story forward regardless of the evil qualities the main character has. These traits can include being cruel, malicious, and wicked. Examples include Humbert Humbert in Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita and Richard III in the eponymous play by William Shakespeare . When

4914-477: Is often treated as a key example of the absurd. In it, Zeus punishes King Sisyphus by compelling him to roll a massive boulder up a hill. Whenever the boulder reaches the top, it rolls down again, thereby forcing Sisyphus to repeat the same task all over again throughout eternity. This story may be seen as an absurdist parable for the hopelessness and futility of human life in general: just like Sisyphus, humans in general are condemned to toil day in and day out in

5040-411: Is possible. Other theorists hold that a proper response to the absurd may neither be possible nor necessary, that it just remains one of the basic aspects of life no matter how it is confronted. This lack of response may be justified through the thesis of absurdism itself: if nothing really matters on the grand scale, then this applies equally to human responses toward this fact. From this perspective,

5166-460: Is pre-Socratic paganism and from the Jewish point of view is idolatry. How can this absurdity be held or believed? Kierkegaard says: I gladly undertake, by way of brief repetition, to emphasize what other pseudonyms have emphasized. The absurd is not the absurd or absurdities without any distinction (wherefore Johannes de Silentio: "How many of our age understand what the absurd is?"). The absurd

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5292-410: Is relatively constrained, with the majority of the individual tales following one or both of the two protagonists as they find and aid civilizations and people in need of their creations, advice, or intervention. Though the thematic content of the stories is broad, most focus on problems of the individual and society, as well as on the vain search for human happiness through technological means. In 1970,

5418-419: Is said to destroy all our hard-earned achievements like career, wealth, or knowledge. This argument is mitigated to some extent by the fact that we may have positive or negative effects on the lives of other people as well. But this does not fully solve the issue since the same problem, i.e. the lack of an ultimate end, applies to their lives as well. Thomas Nagel has objected to these lines of argument based on

5544-480: Is some higher ultimate purpose in which the individual may participate, like service to society, progress of history, or God's glory. While the individual may only play a small part in the realization of this overarching purpose, it may still act as a source of meaning. This way, the individual may find meaning and thereby escape the absurd. One serious issue with this approach is that the problem of absurdity applies to this alleged higher purpose as well. So just like

5670-464: Is the character whose fate is most closely followed by the reader or audience, and who is opposed by the antagonist . The antagonist provides obstacles and complications and creates conflicts that test the protagonist, revealing the strengths and weaknesses of the protagonist's character, and having the protagonist develop as a result. The term protagonist comes from Ancient Greek πρωταγωνιστής ( prōtagōnistḗs )  'actor who plays

5796-444: Is the only philosophically coherent response to the absurd. While these three responses are the most prominent ones in the traditional absurdist literature, various other responses have also been suggested. Instead of rebellion, for example, absurdism may also lead to a form of irony . This irony is not sufficient to escape the absurdity of life altogether, but it may mitigate it to some extent by distancing oneself to some degree from

5922-415: Is the only thing which masters the absurd—if not, then faith is not faith in the strictest sense, but a kind of knowledge. The absurd terminates negatively before the sphere of faith, which is a sphere by itself. To a third person the believer relates himself by virtue of the absurd; so must a third person judge, for a third person does not have the passion of faith. Johannes de Silentio has never claimed to be

6048-419: Is the protagonist. He is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet, and the audience is invested in that story. Tybalt, as an antagonist, opposes Romeo and attempts to thwart the relationship. In Shakespeare's play Hamlet , Prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for the murder of his father, is the protagonist. The antagonist is the character who most opposes Hamlet, Claudius (though, in many ways, Hamlet

6174-649: Is to argue that life in fact has meaning. Supernaturalist arguments to this effect are based on the claim that God exists and acts as the source of meaning. Naturalist arguments, on the other hand, contend that various sources of meaning can be found in the natural world without recourse to a supernatural realm. Some of them hold that meaning is subjective. On this view, whether a given thing is meaningful varies from person to person based on their subjective attitude toward this thing. Others find meaning in external values, for example, in morality , knowledge, or beauty . All these different positions have in common that they affirm

6300-449: Is traditionally identified as the confrontation of rational man with an irrational world or as the attempt to grasp something based on reasons even though it is beyond the limits of rationality. Similar definitions see the discrepancy between intention and outcome, between aspiration and reality , or between subjective assessment and objective worth as the source of absurdity. Other definitions locate both conflicting sides within man:

6426-635: Is used to describe them. Death is theoretically avoidable through constant repair (and sometimes even reversible), but most machines still carry with them a deep-seated knowledge of their own mortality. The universe of The Cyberiad is primarily pseudo- medieval , with kingdoms , knights , princesses , and even dragons existing in abundance. The level of technology of the vast majority of kingdoms also mirrors medieval times, with swords, robotic steeds, and gallows widespread. Alongside this, space travel , extremely advanced technology, and futuristic weapons and devices are available, though most robots do not have

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6552-401: The epistemological problem of the human limitations of knowing the world. This includes the thesis that the world is in critical ways ungraspable to humans, both in relation to what to believe and how to act. This is reflected in the chaos and irrationality of the universe, which acts according to its own laws in a manner indifferent to human concerns and aspirations. It is closely related to

6678-518: The is-ought fallacy : absurdism presents itself as a descriptive claim about the existence and nature of the absurd but then goes on to posit various normative claims. Another defense of absurdism consists in weakening the claims about how one should respond to the absurd and which virtues such a response should exemplify. On this view, absurdism may be understood as a form of self-help that merely provides prudential advice. Such prudential advice may be helpful to certain people without pretending to have

6804-404: The 1965 Polish collection Cyberiada by Wydawnictwo Literackie. In 1974, an English translation by Michael Kandel was published by Harcourt Brace . The translation has been widely regarded as hugely successful, and Kandel was nominated for numerous awards. Since the original book contained heavy wordplay and neologism , Kandel opted for a method of translation that was more free-form than

6930-408: The ability to apprehend the arbitrariness of final ends and the inability to let go of commitments to them. In regard to the conflict, absurdism differs from nihilism since it is not just the thesis that nothing matters. Instead, it includes the component that things seem to matter to us nonetheless and that this impression cannot be shaken off. This difference is expressed in the relational aspect of

7056-435: The absurd "is not in man ... nor in the world, but in their presence together". This position has been rejected by some later theorists, who hold that the absurd is purely internal because it "derives not from a collision between our expectations and the world, but from a collision within ourselves". The distinction is important since, on the latter view, the absurd is built into human nature and would prevail no matter what

7182-404: The absurd ... teaches the contrary". Various objections to such a position have been presented, for example, that it violates common sense or that it leads to numerous radical consequences, like that no one is ever guilty of any blameworthy behavior or that there are no ethical rules. But this negative attitude toward moral values is not always consistently maintained by absurdists and some of

7308-450: The absurd are discussed in the academic literature and different theorists frequently concentrate their definition and research on different components. On the practical level, the conflict underlying the absurd is characterized by the individual's struggle to find meaning in a meaningless world. The theoretical component, on the other hand, emphasizes more the epistemic inability of reason to penetrate and understand reality . Traditionally,

7434-662: The absurd depends on the fact that the affected person recognizes it. For example, people who fail to apprehend the arbitrariness or the conflict would not be affected. According to some researchers, a central aspect of the absurd is that the agent is aware of the existence of the corresponding conflict. This means that the person is conscious both of the seriousness they invest and of how it seems misplaced in an arbitrary world. It also implies that other entities that lack this form of consciousness, like non-organic matter or lower life forms, are not absurd and are not faced with this particular problem. Some theorists also emphasize that

7560-466: The absurd in that it constitutes a conflict between two sides. Various components of the absurd have been suggested and different researchers often focus their definition and inquiry on one of these components. Some accounts emphasize the practical components concerned with the individual seeking meaning while others stress the theoretical components about being unable to know the world or to rationally grasp it. A different disagreement concerns whether

7686-536: The absurd, Abraham, defying all reason and ethical duties ("you cannot act"), got back his son and reaffirmed his faith ("where I have to act"). Another instance of absurdist themes in Kierkegaard's work appears in The Sickness Unto Death , which Kierkegaard signed with pseudonym Anti-Climacus . Exploring the forms of despair, Kierkegaard examines the type of despair known as defiance. In

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7812-616: The absurd, is to act upon faith ... I must act, but reflection has closed the road so I take one of the possibilities and say: This is what I do, I cannot do otherwise because I am brought to a standstill by my powers of reflection. Here is another example of the Absurd from his writings: What, then, is the absurd? The absurd is that the eternal truth has come into existence in time, that God has come into existence, has been born, has grown up. etc., has come into existence exactly as an individual human being, indistinguishable from any other human being, in as much as all immediate recognizability

7938-477: The absurd, they recommend that we should face it directly, i.e. not escape from it by retreating into the illusion of false hope or by ending one's life. In this sense, accepting the reality of the absurd means rejecting any hopes for a happy afterlife free of those contradictions. Instead, the individual should acknowledge the absurd and engage in a rebellion against it. Such a revolt usually exemplifies certain virtues closely related to existentialism , like

8064-418: The absurd. Later researchers have suggested more ways of responding to absurdism. A very blunt and simple response, though quite radical, is to commit suicide. According to Camus, for example, the problem of suicide is the only "really serious philosophical problem". It consists in seeking an answer to the question "Should I kill myself?". This response is motivated by the insight that, no matter how hard

8190-421: The absurd. Of these, rebellion is usually presented as the recommended response since, unlike the other two responses, it does not escape the absurd and instead recognizes it for what it is. Later theorists have suggested additional responses, like using irony to take life less seriously or remaining ignorant of the responsible conflict. Some absurdists argue that whether and how one responds is insignificant. This

8316-473: The absurd. This is perhaps best exemplified when the agent is seriously engaged in choosing between arbitrary options, none of which truly matters. Some theorists characterize the ethical sides of absurdism and nihilism in the same way as the view that it does not matter how we act or that "everything is permitted". On this view, an important aspect of the absurd is that whatever higher end or purpose we choose to pursue, it can also be put into doubt since, in

8442-427: The absurdity of the world. In his journals, Kierkegaard writes about the absurd: What is the Absurd? It is, as may quite easily be seen, that I, a rational being, must act in a case where my reason, my powers of reflection, tell me: you can just as well do the one thing as the other, that is to say where my reason and reflection say: you cannot act and yet here is where I have to act... The Absurd, or to act by virtue of

8568-407: The absurdity of these enterprises. Another aspect lies in creativity , i.e. that the agent sees themselves as and acts as the creator of their own works and paths in life. This constitutes a form of rebellion in the sense that the agent remains aware of the absurdity of the world and their part in it but keeps on opposing it instead of resigning and admitting defeat. But this response does not solve

8694-460: The affirmation of one's freedom in the face of adversity as well as accepting responsibility and defining one's own essence . An important aspect of this lifestyle is that life is lived passionately and intensely by inviting and seeking new experiences . Such a lifestyle might be exemplified by an actor , a conqueror, or a seduction artist who is constantly on the lookout for new roles, conquests, or attractive people despite their awareness of

8820-489: The agent faces the absurdity of their situation and that the response should exemplify these virtues. This aspect is particularly prominent in the idea that the agent should rebel against the absurd and live their life authentically as a form of passionate revolt. Some see the latter position as inconsistent with the idea that there is no meaning in life: if nothing matters then it should also not matter how we respond to this fact. So absurdists seem to be committed both to

8946-416: The agent tries, they may never reach their goal of leading a meaningful life, which can then justify the rejection of continuing to live at all. Most researchers acknowledge that this is one form of response to the absurd but reject it due to its radical and irreversible nature and argue instead for a different approach. One such alternative response to the apparent absurdity of life is to assume that there

9072-407: The aims of a single individual life can be put into doubt, this applies equally to a larger purpose shared by many. And if this purpose is itself absurd, it fails to act as a source of meaning for the individual participating in it. Camus identifies this response as a form of suicide as well, pertaining not to the physical but to the philosophical level. It is a philosophical suicide in the sense that

9198-527: The attempt to fulfill pointless tasks, which will be replaced by new pointless tasks once they are completed. It has been argued that a central aspect of Sisyphus' situation is not just the futility of his labor but also his awareness of the futility. Another example of the absurdist aspect of the human condition is given in Franz Kafka 's The Trial . In it, the protagonist Josef K. is arrested and prosecuted by an inaccessible authority even though he

9324-425: The attention of professional philosophers it merits in virtue of the topic's importance and its potential psychological impact on the affected individuals in the form of existential crises . Various possible responses to deal with absurdism and its impact have been suggested. The three responses discussed in the traditional absurdist literature are suicide , religious belief in a higher purpose, and rebellion against

9450-485: The basic conflict posed by the absurd cannot be truly resolved. This means that any attempt to do so is bound to fail even though their protagonists may not be aware of their failure. On this view, there are still several possible responses, some better than others, but none able to solve the fundamental conflict. Traditional absurdism, as exemplified by Albert Camus , holds that there are three possible responses to absurdism: suicide , religious belief , or revolting against

9576-457: The book and approach, saying that Kandel was the "best translator his work could ever have". The Cyberiad has been widely praised and acknowledged for its writing, humor, and allegorical nature. Most critics agree that it is a work of "comic-satirical science fiction", though many have argued that the deeper themes present make it far more than a simple work of science fiction. The book was met with praise at release, with critics applauding both

9702-598: The book was adapted into the opera Cyberiada . Alongside many of Lem's other works, this book has been an inspiration for numerous films and games . There is a steel statue of Elektrybałt, Trurl's legendary electronic bard who coins the word Cyberiad , in the Copernicus Science Centre , Warsaw. The Cyberiad shares the peculiar robot's universe , as well as the style, with the cycle Fables for Robots . Trurl and Klapaucius are "constructors" — brilliant engineers capable of God-like exploits through

9828-564: The chief or first part', combined of πρῶτος ( prôtos , 'first') and ἀγωνιστής ( agōnistḗs , 'actor, competitor'), which stems from ἀγών ( agṓn , 'contest') via ἀγωνίζομαι ( agōnízomai , 'I contend for a prize'). The earliest known examples of a protagonist are found in Ancient Greece . At first, dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus. Then in Poetics , Aristotle describes how

9954-422: The claim that moral values exist and that they do not exist. Defenders of absurdism have tried to resist this line of argument by contending that, in contrast to other responses, it remains true to the basic insight of absurdism and the "logic of the absurd" by acknowledging the existence of the absurd instead of denying it. But this defense is not always accepted. One of its shortcomings seems to be that it commits

10080-447: The claim that they are circular: they assume rather than establish that life is absurd. For example, the claim that our actions today will not matter in a million years does not directly imply that they do not matter today. And similarly, the fact that a process does not reach a meaningful ultimate goal does not entail that the process as a whole is worthless since some parts of the process may contain their justification without depending on

10206-516: The conflict exists only internal to the individual or is between the individual's expectations and the external world . Some theorists also include the metacognitive component that the absurd entails that the individual is aware of this conflict. An important aspect of absurdism is that the absurd is not limited to particular situations but encompasses life as a whole. There is a general agreement that people are often confronted with absurd situations in everyday life. They often arise when there

10332-442: The conflict is characterized as a collision between an internal component, belonging to human nature, and an external component, belonging to the nature of the world. However, some later theorists have suggested that both components may be internal: the capacity to see through the arbitrariness of any ultimate purpose, on the one hand, and the incapacity to stop caring about such purposes, on the other hand. Certain accounts also involve

10458-466: The conflict remains despite the individual's awareness of it, i.e. that the individual continues to care about their everyday concerns despite their impression that, on the large scale, these concerns are meaningless. Defenders of the metacognitive component have argued that it manages to explain why absurdity is primarily ascribed to human aspirations but not to lower animals: because they lack this metacognitive awareness. However, other researchers reject

10584-456: The conflict responsible for the absurd often either constitutes or is accompanied by an existential crisis . An important component of the absurd on the practical level concerns the seriousness people bring toward life. This seriousness is reflected in many different attitudes and areas, for example, concerning fame, pleasure , justice , knowledge, or survival, both in regard to ourselves as well as in regard to others. But there seems to be

10710-414: The conflicting elements would cease to exist, i.e. if the individual would stop caring about things, as some Eastern religions seem to suggest, or if one could find something that possesses a non-arbitrary meaning that merits the concern. For theorists who give importance to the consciousness of this conflict for the absurd, a further option presents itself: to remain ignorant of it to the extent that this

10836-466: The early period of Greek drama, the protagonist served as the author, the director, and the actor and that these roles were only separated and allocated to different individuals later. There is also a claim that the poet did not assign or create the protagonist as well as other terms for actors such as deuteragonist and tritagonist primarily because he only gave actors their appropriate part. However, these actors were assigned their specific areas at

10962-464: The existence of meaning, in contrast to absurdism. Another criticism of absurdism focuses on its negative attitude toward moral values. In the absurdist literature, the moral dimension is sometimes outright denied, for example, by holding that value judgments are to be discarded or that the rejection of God implies the rejection of moral values. On this view, absurdism brings with it a highly controversial form of moral nihilism . This means that there

11088-431: The external world. A similar problematic step is taken by John Locke , who accepts the existence of a God beyond sensory experience , despite his strict empiricism , which demands that all knowledge be based on sensory experience. Other theorists argue in favor of absurdism based on the claim that meaning is relational . In this sense, for something to be meaningful, it has to stand in relation to something else that

11214-403: The first part, chief actor') is the main character of a story. The protagonist makes key decisions that affect the plot , primarily influencing the story and propelling it forward, and is often the character who faces the most significant obstacles. If a story contains a subplot , or is a narrative made up of several stories, then each subplot may have its own protagonist. The protagonist

11340-408: The form of precious metals . In one story, when rewards for slaying a dragon are promised and not delivered, Trurl disguises himself in the skin of the dragon to continue harassing the local inhabitants until he can collect his payment. Despite their love of money, they prefer to aid the oppressed and help civilizations reach higher "levels of development" (at least by their own standards.) The machines

11466-473: The future by pointing out that nothing we do today will matter in a million years. A similar line of argument points to the fact that our lives are insignificant because of how small they are in relation to the universe as a whole, both concerning their spatial and their temporal dimensions. The thesis of absurdism is also sometimes based on the problem of death , i.e. that there is no final end for us to pursue since we are all going to die. In this sense, death

11592-402: The human cognitive faculties themselves. Some theorists also link this problem to the circularity of human reason, which is very skilled at producing chains of justification linking one thing to another while trying and failing to do the same for the chain of justification as a whole when taking a reflective step backward. This implies that human reason is not just too limited to grasp life as

11718-429: The idea that the world remains silent when we ask why things are the way they are. This silence arises from the impression that, on the most fundamental level, all things exist without a reason: they are simply there. An important aspect of these limitations to knowing the world is that they are essential to human cognition , i.e. they are not due to following false principles or accidental weaknesses but are inherent in

11844-414: The individual just assumes that the chosen higher purpose is meaningful and thereby fails to reflect on its absurdity. Traditional absurdists usually reject both physical and philosophical suicide as the recommended response to the absurd, usually with the argument that both these responses constitute some form of escape that fails to face the absurd for what it is. Despite the gravity and inevitability of

11970-449: The insight that the day-to-day engagements matter a lot to us despite the fact that they lack real meaning when evaluated from a wider perspective. This assessment reveals the conflict between the significance seen from the internal perspective and the arbitrariness revealed through the external perspective. The absurd becomes a problem since there is a strong desire for meaning and purpose even though they seem to be absent. In this sense,

12096-412: The key aspects of absurdism even though they may not explicitly discuss the topic. It has been argued that acknowledging the existence of the absurd has important consequences for epistemology, especially in relation to philosophy but also when applied more widely to other fields. The reason for this is that acknowledging the absurd includes becoming aware of human cognitive limitations and may lead to

12222-517: The last step, it always lacks a higher-order justification. But usually, a distinction between absurdism and nihilism is made since absurdism involves the additional component that there is a conflict between man's desire for meaning and the absence of meaning. On a more theoretical view, absurdism is the belief that the world is, at its core, indifferent and impenetrable toward human attempts to uncover its deeper reason or that it cannot be known. According to this theoretical component, it involves

12348-637: The machines they build. The two have complete control over the physical laws of the universe; for instance, on one occasion, Trurl creates an entity capable of extracting accurate information from the random motion of gas particles, which he calls a "Demon of the Second Kind" , with the "Demon of the First Kind" being Maxwell's demon . In another instance, the two constructors re-arrange stars near their home planet in order to advertise their services. Despite this incredible power, without their machines

12474-447: The means to access or understand them, hence the need for "constructors." Often the lessons of medieval chivalry are retaught in a way more applicable to the machine age. Despite its titular status, the "Cyberiad" is neither a character nor a time period nor a plot element; the word is used only once in ambiguous context by Elektrybałt, an electronic poet invented by Trurl. The stories are individually framed as fables, with each having

12600-436: The medieval love fairytale. The prince goes to seek the love of Princess Crystal (the sexual dimorphism of robotics is never thoroughly explained), but she says she will only marry a "paleface," a term for humans in this apocalyptic future. This is also the only story in which a human is a character; though they are mentioned offhand in others, they are never treated as anything more than a myth . The prince disguises himself as

12726-401: The metacognitive requirement based on the fact that it would severely limit the scope of the absurd to only those possibly few individuals who clearly recognize the contradiction while sparing the rest. Thus, opponents have argued that not recognizing the conflict is just as absurd as consciously living through it. Various popular arguments are often cited in favor of absurdism. Some focus on

12852-453: The mysteries of existence. In that regard, this tendency may be seen as a form of defense mechanism or wishful thinking constituting a side-effect of the unacknowledged and ignored importance of the absurd. While some discussions of absurdism happen explicitly in the philosophical literature, it is often presented in a less explicit manner in the form of novels or plays. These presentations usually happen by telling stories that exemplify some of

12978-754: The opening quotation reproduced at the beginning of the article, Kierkegaard describes how such a man would endure such a defiance and identifies the three major traits of the Absurd Man, later discussed by Albert Camus: a rejection of escaping existence (suicide), a rejection of help from a higher power and acceptance of his absurd (and despairing) condition. According to Kierkegaard in his autobiography The Point of View of My Work as an Author , most of his pseudonymous writings are not necessarily reflective of his own opinions. Nevertheless, his work anticipated many absurdist themes and provided its theoretical background. The philosophy of Albert Camus, or more precisely

13104-451: The original and the renowned translation. Leslie Fiedler called the work "truly amusing and profoundly disturbing at the same time". Though some critics disliked the directness of the fables, it was agreed that it was if nothing else, a sharp and amusing satire of our modern society. Later on, more critical literary analysis also praised the work, drawing attention to its sharp political messages, critique of anthropocentrism , and approach to

13230-413: The passionate rebellion against an apparently trivial or unimportant state of affairs seems less like a heroic quest and more like a fool's errand . Jeffrey Gordon has objected to this criticism based on the claim that there is a difference between absurdity and lack of importance. So even if life as a whole is absurd, some facts about life may still be more important than others and the fact that life as

13356-403: The possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell, if so it must be. — Søren Kierkegaard , The Sickness Unto Death Most researchers argue that

13482-445: The problem of the absurd at its core: even a life dedicated to the rebellion against the absurd is itself still absurd. Defenders of the rebellious response to absurdism have pointed out that, despite its possible shortcomings, it has one important advantage over many of its alternatives: it manages to accept the absurd for what it is without denying it by rejecting that it exists or by stopping one's own existence. Some even hold that it

13608-633: The psychology of artificial life. It has been considered a classic of Eastern European science fiction and has become widely appreciated in both the Eastern European and broader scientific and technological communities. The book as a whole, and some stories contained within, have been praised by numerous science fiction writers, most famously Ursula K. Le Guin and Kurt Vonnegut . In 1970, Krzysztof Meyer composed Cyberiada – an opera to his own libretto based on selected stories. In 1975 an animated film Maszyna Trurla (8 minutes)

13734-458: The realm of phenomena since this is how sensory impressions are organized by the mind , but may not be found on the level of noumena. The concept of the absurd corresponds to the thesis that there is such a gap and human limitations may limit the mind from ever truly grasping reality, i.e. that reality in this sense remains absurd to the mind. A century before Camus , the 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote extensively about

13860-424: The right relation to them. However, if these wider contexts themselves lack meaning then they are unable to act as sources of meaning for other things. This would lead to the absurd when understood as the conflict between the impression that our everyday engagements are meaningful even though they lack meaning because they do not stand in a relation to something else that is meaningful. Another argument for absurdism

13986-428: The seriousness of life. According to Thomas Nagel , there may be, at least theoretically, two responses to actually resolving the problem of the absurd. This is based on the idea that the absurd arises from the consciousness of a conflict between two aspects of human life: that humans care about various things and that the world seems arbitrary and does not merit this concern. The absurd would not arise if either of

14112-531: The social environment that stimulated absurdist views and allowed for their popular development, especially in the devastated country of France . Foucault viewed Shakespearean theater as a precursor of absurdism. An idea very close to the concept of the absurd is due to Immanuel Kant , who distinguishes between phenomena and noumena . This distinction refers to the gap between how things appear to us and what they are like in themselves. For example, according to Kant, space and times are dimensions belonging to

14238-419: The stage with the protagonist always entering from the middle door or that the dwelling of the deuteragonist (second most important character) should be on the right hand, and the tritagonist (third most important character), the left. In Ancient Greece, the protagonist is distinguished from the term "hero", which was used to refer to a human who became a semi-divine being in the narrative. In literary terms,

14364-505: The status of universally valid moral values or categorical normative judgments. So the value of the prudential advice may merely be relative to the interests of some people but not valuable in a more general sense. This way, absurdists have tried to resolve the apparent inconsistency in their position. According to absurdism, life in general is absurd: the absurd is not just limited to a few specific cases. Nonetheless, some cases are more paradigmatic examples than others. The Myth of Sisyphus

14490-453: The suggested responses on how to deal with the absurd seem to explicitly defend the existence of moral values. Due to this ambiguity, other critics of absurdism have objected to it based on its inconsistency. The moral values defended by absurdists often overlap with the ethical outlook of existentialism and include traits like sincerity , authenticity , and courage as virtues . In this sense, absurdists often argue that it matters how

14616-411: The topic of the absurd does not receive the attention of professional philosophers it merits, especially when compared to other perennial philosophical areas of inquiry. It has been argued, for example, that this can be seen in the tendency of various philosophers throughout the ages to include the epistemically dubitable existence of God in their philosophical systems as a source of ultimate explanation of

14742-458: The two are relatively powerless, and are captured, incapacitated, and physically beaten numerous times. The duo are both best friends and intellectual rivals . Their adventures consist of both building revolutionary machines at home and travelling the galaxy to aid those in need. Although they are firmly established as fundamentally good and righteous people through their actions, they typically demand payment for their services, usually delivered in

14868-506: The two build and the journeys they embark on are the basis for the greater moral lessons of the book. Though humans are virtually nonexistent, most intelligent machines are still highly anthropomorphic in nearly every aspect; they are bipedal , divided into two sexes, experience human emotions, and at least appear to be capable of love. Robotic versions of physical and mental disabilities, old age and death, particularly in case of accidents or murder, are also common, though mechanical language

14994-466: The universe plays by rational rules is subject to intense mockery; in one case, Trurl's machine that can make anything beginning with the letter N nearly destroys the universe when it is asked to make "nothing." A select few stories parallel more specific tropes; the tale of O królewiczu Ferrycym i królewnie Krystalii ("Prince Ferrix and the Princess Crystal") apes the typical structure of

15120-404: The world as a whole, is absurd. The claim that the absurd has such a global extension is controversial, in contrast to the weaker claim that some situations are absurd. The perspective of absurdism usually comes into view when the agent takes a step back from their individual everyday engagements with the world to assess their importance from a bigger context. Such an assessment can result in

15246-449: The world in general, is absurd. There is wide agreement that the term "absurd" implies a lack of meaning or purpose but there is also significant dispute concerning its exact definition and various versions have been suggested. The choice of one's definition has important implications for whether the thesis of absurdism is correct and for the arguments cited for and against it: it may be true on one definition and false on another. In

15372-434: The world was like. So it is not just that absurdism is true in the actual world. Instead, any possible world , even one that was designed by a divine god and guided by them according to their higher purpose, would still be equally absurd to man. In this sense, absurdity is the product of the power of our consciousness to take a step back from whatever it is considering and reflect on the reason of its object. When this process

15498-437: The world's lack thereof. Being confronted with this conflict may trigger an existential crisis, in which unpleasant experiences like anxiety or depression may push the affected to find a response for dealing with the conflict. Recognizing the absence of objective meaning, however, does not preclude the conscious thinker from finding subjective meaning in arbitrary places. Absurdism is the philosophical thesis that life, or

15624-585: The “camusian absurd” ( french  : l'absurde camusien ), refers with absurdism to the work and philosophical thought of the french writer Albert Camus . This philosophy is influenced by the author's political, libertarian , social and ecological ideas; and is inspired by previous philosophical trends, such as Greek philosophy , nihilism , the Nietzschean thought or existentialism . It revolves around three major cycles: “the absurd ( l'absurde )”, “the revolt ( la révolte )” and “love ( l'amour )”. Each cycle

15750-547: Was relatively in line with the Soviet view of monarchism . However, contrasting that, a robotic analogue of Karl Marx is also put to death, not because of his ideas, but because he refused to stop attempting to implement his philosophy after his initial failure (a clear critique of the Soviet Union.) The H.P.L.D. ("Highest Possible Level of Development") civilization outright states that it is impossible to force happiness on

15876-499: Was released based on Lem's story (director Jerzy Zitzman  [ pl ] , screenplay Leszek Mech  [ pl ] ). The Seventh Sally or How Trurl's Own Perfection Led to No Good (Polish title: Wyprawa siódma, czyli o tym jak własna doskonałość Trurla do złego przywiodła ) was adapted as part of the plot for the film Victim of the Brain , there called The Perfect Imitation . This same story, in which Trurl creates

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