68-509: The Devil Rides Out is a 1934 novel by Dennis Wheatley telling a disturbing story of black magic and the occult . The four main characters, the Duke de Richleau , Rex van Ryn, Simon Aron and Richard Eaton, appear in a series of novels by Wheatley. A serialised version appeared, begun in The Daily Mail in 1934. The book was made into a film by Hammer Film Productions in 1968. There
136-453: A "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud high explosive or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. The major drawback of artillery delivery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. A British solution to
204-426: A 5 day working week has been instituted in the mines, the railways and many other industries. The doctrine of ensuring every child a good start in life and equal opportunities is fair and right, but the intelligent and the hardworking will always rise above the rest, and it is not a practical proposition that the few should be expected to devote their lives exclusively to making things easy for the majority. In time, such
272-442: A few minutes or hours or even only a few seconds. Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent, as are highly volatile agents such as sarin. Tactically, nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very quickly. Apart from the agent used, the delivery mode is very important. To achieve a nonpersistent deployment, the agent is dispersed into very small droplets comparable with
340-437: A fictional version of Wheatley is involved in black magic by Aleister Crowley. All titles in this list (up to the end of the 'Short Story Collection' section) were made available in the 1970s Heron hardback edition, except for the titles marked with an 'X'. His Gregory Sallust series has been claimed as an inspiration for Ian Fleming 's James Bond stories. Chemical warfare Chemical warfare ( CW ) involves using
408-517: A gas, and therefore present primarily a contact hazard. The droplet size used for persistent delivery goes up to 1 mm increasing the falling speed and therefore about 80% of the deployed agent reaches the ground, resulting in heavy contamination. Deployment of persistent agents is intended to constrain enemy operations by denying access to contaminated areas. Possible targets include enemy flank positions (averting possible counterattacks), artillery regiments, command posts or supply lines. Because it
476-588: A grenade with K-51 aerosol CS gas from an unmanned drone. Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years, "modern" chemical warfare began during World War I – see Chemical weapons in World War I . Initially, only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. These included chlorine and phosgene gas. The methods used to disperse these agents during battle were relatively unrefined and inefficient. Even so, casualties could be heavy, due to
544-462: A move to digital publishing. In October 2013, Bloomsbury Reader began republishing 56 of his titles; many of these will be edited and abridged. However, many of them will also have new introductions evaluating Wheatley's work, including some written by his grandson, Dominic Wheatley. These are to be available in both printed format and as ebooks. In Stephen Volk 's novella Netherwood , part of Volk's 2018 book The Dark Masters Trilogy , set in 1947,
612-451: A multitude of submunitions, so that a large number of small clouds of the chemical agent would form directly on the target. Thermal dissemination is the use of explosives or pyrotechnics to deliver chemical agents. This technique, developed in the 1920s, was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques, in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent to be disseminated over a considerable distance. Thermal dissemination remains
680-432: A one- to three-letter " NATO weapon designation" in addition to, or in place of, a common name. Binary munitions , in which precursors for chemical warfare agents are automatically mixed in shell to produce the agent just prior to its use, are indicated by a "-2" following the agent's designation (for example, GB-2 and VX-2). Some examples are given below: The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons
748-512: A system is bound to undermine the vigour of the race. From 1972 to 1977 (the year of his death), 52 of Dennis Wheatley's novels were offered in a uniform hardcover set by Heron Books UK. (This was in addition to Hutchinson's own "Lymington" library edition, published from 1961 to 1979.) Having brought each of his major fictional series to a close with the final Roger Brook novel, Wheatley then turned to his memoirs. These were announced as five volumes, but were eventually only published as three books,
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#1732800844486816-446: A technique for delivery of phosgene in a non-explosive artillery shell. This technique overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. First, gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making any target within reach of guns vulnerable. Second, gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless phosgene—there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with
884-524: A teenager. She added that she listed it (along with the Pan Book of Horror Stories ) among the books as "that have influenced her own writing the most." In 1968, the novel was made into a film by the British film company Hammer Film Productions . It starred Christopher Lee as de Richleau and Charles Gray as Mocata. Dennis Wheatley Dennis Yates Wheatley (8 January 1897 – 10 November 1977)
952-471: A wine business in Mayfair , London. Dennis admitted to having little aptitude for schooling and was later expelled after a few "unhappy years" studying at Dulwich College for allegedly forming a "secret society", as he mentions in his introduction to The Devil Rides Out . Soon after his expulsion, Wheatley became a British Merchant Navy officer cadet on the training ship HMS Worcester . Wheatley
1020-586: Is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). Under this convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition known as the General Purpose Criterion ). About 70 different chemicals have been used or were stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during
1088-457: Is also an abridged, young adult version "retold" by Alison Sage for the "Fleshcreepers" series (1987). Set in 1930s London and the South of England, Duc de Richleau and Rex van Ryn rescue their friend Simon Aron from a devil-worshipping cult. Rex falls in love with another initiate of the cult, Tanith. Rex prevents Tanith from going to a ceremony on Salisbury Plain. The Duc and Rex rescue Simon from
1156-481: Is called a chemical warfare agent ( CWA ). About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th and 21st centuries. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid form. Liquid agents that evaporate quickly are said to be volatile or have a high vapor pressure . Many chemical agents are volatile organic compounds so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly. The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research
1224-597: Is defeated. The group wake up in the Eatons’ home and realise that during the ceremony they entered the fourth dimension. Mocata is found dead outside the house. The Duc wakes up clutching the Talisman and destroys it. Tanith is found to be alive - Mocata’s soul has been exchanged for hers. James Hilton , reviewing The Devil Rides Out , described it as "The best thing of its kind since Dracula ". Celia Rees stated in an interview that she had read The Devil Rides Out as
1292-587: Is not necessary to deliver large quantities of the agent in a short period of time, a wide variety of weapons systems can be used. A special form of persistent agents are thickened agents. These comprise a common agent mixed with thickeners to provide gelatinous, sticky agents. Primary targets for this kind of use include airfields, due to the increased persistency and difficulty of decontaminating affected areas. Chemical weapons are agents that come in four categories: choking , blister , blood and nerve . The agents are organized into several categories according to
1360-469: Is prohibited under international humanitarian law by the 1925 Geneva Protocol and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits signatories from acquiring, stockpiling, developing, and using chemical weapons in all circumstances except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective). Chemical warfare is different from
1428-414: Is still difficult to achieve effective dispersion. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents act in gaseous form. Thus, weather observations and forecasting are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces. Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that
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#17328008444861496-432: Is the efficiency of its delivery, or dissemination, to a target. The most common techniques include munitions (such as bombs, projectiles, warheads) that allow dissemination at a distance and spray tanks which disseminate from low-flying aircraft. Developments in the techniques of filling and storage of munitions have also been important. Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I, it
1564-689: The Bishop of Peterborough . He was cremated at Tooting and his ashes interred at the South Cemetery section of Brookwood Cemetery , under a tall tree near the entrance. He is also commemorated on the Baker/Yates family monument at West Norwood Cemetery . His estate library was sold in a catalogue sale by Basil Blackwell 's in 1979. It suggested a well-read individual with wide-ranging interests, particularly with respect to historical fiction and Europe. His grandson Dominic Wheatley became one of
1632-516: The Industrial Age . It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses. Multiple international treaties were passed banning chemical weapons based upon the alarm of nations and scientists. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I . The development of chlorine gas , among others,
1700-631: The Kuomintang and Chinese communist troops, the People's Liberation Army . However, the Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians, mostly the genocide of European Jews , in The Holocaust . Vast quantities of Zyklon B gas and carbon monoxide were used in the gas chambers of Nazi extermination camps , resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains
1768-642: The Roger Brook series the main character involves himself with Napoleon and Joséphine whilst spying for Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger . Similarly, in the Gregory Sallust series, Sallust shares an evening meal with Hermann Göring . In They Used Dark Forces , the last book of the Sallust war-time sequence, Göring gets a surprisingly positive depiction as an honourable man who disliked
1836-768: The Tokyo subway sarin attack and the Matsumoto incident . See also chemical terrorism . In the 21st century, the Ba'athist regime in Syria has used chemical weapons against civilian populations, resulting in numerous deadly chemical attacks during the Syrian civil war . The Syrian government has used sarin, chlorine, and mustard gas in the Syrian civil war – mostly against civilians. Russia has used chemical weapons during its invasion of Ukraine . This has been done mainly by dropping
1904-569: The lethal dose causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The distinction between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed, but relies on a statistical average called the LD 50 . Chemical warfare agents can be classified according to their persistency , a measure of the length of time that a chemical agent remains effective after dissemination. Chemical agents are classified as persistent or nonpersistent . Agents classified as nonpersistent lose effectiveness after only
1972-597: The tear-producer ethyl bromoacetate , and was used in autumn 1914 – with little effect on the Germans. The German military contrarily tried to increase the effect of 10.5 cm shrapnel shells by adding an irritant – dianisidine chlorosulfonate . Its use against the British at Neuve Chapelle in October 1914 went unnoticed by them. Hans Tappen, a chemist in the Heavy Artillery Department of
2040-475: The toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons . This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare , biological warfare and radiological warfare , which together make up CBRN , the military acronym for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (warfare or weapons), all of which are considered " weapons of mass destruction " (WMDs), a term that contrasts with conventional weapons . The use of chemical weapons in international armed conflicts
2108-544: The (fourth) volume concerning the Second World War issued as a separate title. His availability and influence declined following his death, partly owing to difficulties of reprinting his works because of copyright problems. In 1998 Justerini & Brooks celebrated their upcoming 250th anniversary by revising his last work about their house, The Eight Ages of Justerini's (1965) and re-issuing it as The Nine Ages of Justerini's . The revision by Susan Keevil brought
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2176-534: The 20th century. The entire class, known as Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions , has been scheduled for elimination by the CWC. Under the convention, chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons, or that may be used to manufacture such chemicals, are divided into three groups according to their purpose and treatment: Chemical weapons are divided into three categories: Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into
2244-536: The Angel of Death using the medium of Tanith. The defeat of the Angel results in Tanith’s death. After successfully defending themselves through the night the group find that Mocata has kidnapped the Eatons’ daughter. Simon exchanges himself for her. Mocata is using Simon to find the Talisman of Set, a powerful satanic object. The book culminates in a desperate chase across Europe to an abandoned Greek Monastery where Mocata
2312-697: The Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities. Japanese forces, as part of the Axis, used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against
2380-725: The Occult", selecting the titles and writing short introductions for each book. These included both occult-themed novels by the likes of Bram Stoker and Aleister Crowley (with whom he once shared a lunch) and non-fiction works on magic , occultism , and divination by authors such as the Theosophist H. P. Blavatsky , the historian Maurice Magre, the magician Isaac Bonewits , and the palm-reader Cheiro . Two weeks before his death in November 1977, Wheatley received conditional absolution from his old friend Cyril 'Bobby' Eastaugh ,
2448-673: The Russians at the Battle of Bolimów on January 31, 1915; the liquid failed to vaporize in the cold weather, and again the experiment went unnoticed by the Allies. The first effective use were when the German forces at the Second Battle of Ypres simply opened cylinders of chlorine and allowed the wind to carry the gas across enemy lines. While simple, this technique had numerous disadvantages. Moving large numbers of heavy gas cylinders to
2516-645: The War Ministry, suggested to his brother, the Chief of the Operations Branch at German General Headquarters, the use of the tear-gases benzyl bromide or xylyl bromide . Shells were tested successfully at the Wahn artillery range near Cologne on January 9, 1915, and an order was placed for 15 cm howitzer shells, designated 'T-shells' after Tappen. A shortage of shells limited the first use against
2584-596: The War Office. He wrote numerous papers for them, including suggestions for dealing with a possible Nazi invasion of Britain (recounted in his works Stranger than Fiction and The Deception Planners ). The most famous of his submissions to the Joint Planning Staff of the war cabinet was on "Total War". He received a direct commission in the JP Service as a Wing Commander , RAFVR , and took part in
2652-504: The best known is The Devil Rides Out (book 1934, film 1968). Wheatley also wrote non-fiction works, including an account of the Russian Revolution , a life of King Charles II of England , and several autobiographical volumes. He edited several collections of short stories, and from 1974 to 1977 he supervised a series of 45 paperback reprints for the British publisher Sphere with the heading "The Dennis Wheatley Library of
2720-485: The ceremony. They escape to the home of the Eatons, friends of Richleau and van Ryn, and are followed by the group’s leader, Mocata, who has a psychic connection to the two initiates. After visiting the house to discuss the matter and an unsuccessful attempt to influence the initiates to return, Mocata forces Richleau and the other occupants to defend themselves through a night of black magic attacks. During this Mocata summons
2788-519: The co-founders of the software house Domark , which published a number of titles in the 1980s and 1990s. Wheatley's work reflects his conservative worldview. His protagonists are generally supporters of the monarchy , the British Empire and the class system , and many of his villains are villainous because they attack these ideas. Wheatley was an opponent of Nazism and Communism , believing them to be controlled by Satanic power. During
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2856-581: The deadliest use of poison gas in history. The post-war era has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War . Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 Halabja chemical attack . The Cuban intervention in Angola saw limited use of organophosphates . Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in
2924-594: The enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. This made the gas doubly effective, as, in addition to damaging the enemy physically, it also had a psychological effect on the intended victims. Another disadvantage was that gas clouds had limited penetration, capable only of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Although it produced limited results in World War I, this technique shows how simple chemical weapon dissemination can be. Shortly after this "open canister" dissemination, French forces developed
2992-730: The family's wine business. In 1931, however, after his father's death, and with business having declined because of the Great Depression , he sold the firm and began writing. In 1930, his widowed mother married Sir Louis Newton, 1st Baronet , Lord Mayor of London 1923–24. During the Second World War Wheatley was a member of the London Controlling Section , which secretly coordinated strategic military deception and cover plans. His literary talents led to his working with planning staffs for
3060-429: The front-line positions from where the gas would be released was a lengthy and difficult logistical task. Stockpiles of cylinders had to be stored at the front line, posing a great risk if hit by artillery shells. Gas delivery depended greatly on wind speed and direction. If the wind was fickle, as at the Battle of Loos , the gas could blow back, causing friendly casualties . Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing
3128-539: The hero against some manifestation of the supernatural—making them into fantasy and specifically contemporary fantasy . He came to be considered an authority on Satanism , the practice of exorcism , and black magic , toward all of which he expressed hostility. During his study of the paranormal , though, he joined the Ghost Club . In many of his works, Wheatley wove in interactions between his characters and actual historical events and individuals. For example, in
3196-680: The history up to date. Wheatley's literary estate was acquired by media company Chorion in April 2008, and several titles were reissued in Wordsworth paperback editions. A new hardcover omnibus of Black Magic novels was released by Prion in 2011. When Chorion encountered financial problems in 2012, the Rights House and PFD acquired four crime estates from them, including the Wheatley titles. PFD hoped to broker new series for TV and radio, and
3264-452: The mainly static troop positions which were characteristic features of trench warfare . Germany, the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield, simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. Soon after, the French modified artillery munitions to contain phosgene – a much more effective method that became
3332-419: The manner in which they affect the human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are as follows: Non-living biological proteins, such as: There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by the CWC, and thus are not controlled under the CWC treaties. These include: Most chemical weapons are assigned
3400-418: The material is most efficiently used. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. The most common techniques are munitions, bombs, projectiles, spray tanks and warheads. World War I saw the earliest implementation of this technique. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26 mm cartouche suffocante rifle grenade , fired from a flare carbine . It contained 35g of
3468-481: The mist produced by an aerosol can. In this form not only the gaseous part of the agent (around 50%) but also the fine aerosol can be inhaled or absorbed through pores in the skin. Modern doctrine requires very high concentrations almost instantly in order to be effective (one breath should contain a lethal dose of the agent). To achieve this, the primary weapons used would be rocket artillery or bombs and large ballistic missiles with cluster warheads. The contamination in
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#17328008444863536-413: The monarchy, the "pampering" of a "lazy" working class and a national bankruptcy. He advised both passive and active resistance to the resulting "tyranny", including "ambushing and killing of unjust tyrannous officials". Employers are now no longer allowed to run their businesses as they think best but have become the bond slaves of socialist state planning. The school leaving age has been put up to 16, and
3604-551: The mystery before unsealing the last pages of the file, which gave the answer. Four of these 'Crime Dossiers' were published: Murder Off Miami , Who Killed Robert Prentice? , The Malinsay Massacre , and Herewith The Clues! . Wheatley also devised a number of board games including Invasion (1938), Blockade (1939), and Alibi (April 1953). In the 1960s, Hutchinson was selling a million copies of his books per year, and most of his titles were kept available in hardcover. A few of his books were made into films by Hammer , of which
3672-803: The next year of his occult story, The Devil Rides Out —hailed by James Hilton as "the best thing of its kind since Dracula "—cemented his reputation as "The Prince of Thriller Writers." Wheatley mainly wrote adventure novels, with many books in a series of linked works. Background themes included the French Revolution (the Roger Brook series), Satanism (the Duke de Richleau series), World War II (the Gregory Sallust series) and espionage (the Julian Day novels). Over time, each of his major series would include at least one book pitting
3740-584: The occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly to put down rebellions. In Nazi Germany , much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent nerve agents . However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in World War II . Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but the Allied Powers never did, and the Axis used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by
3808-550: The plans for the Normandy invasions . After the war Wheatley was awarded the U.S. Bronze Star for his role in the Second World War. His first book, Three Inquisitive People , was not published when completed, but came out later, in 1940. However, his next novel made quite a splash. Called The Forbidden Territory , it was an immediate success when issued by Hutchinson in 1933, being reprinted seven times in seven weeks. After finishing The Fabulous Valley , Wheatley decided to use
3876-466: The principal means of delivery. Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I, nations have pursued research and development on chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents; more efficient methods of delivering agents to the target (dissemination); more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons; and more sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents. The chemical used in warfare
3944-399: The principal method of disseminating chemical agents today. Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a bomb or projectile shell that contains a chemical agent and a central "burster" charge; when the burster detonates, the agent is expelled laterally. Thermal dissemination devices, though common, are not particularly efficient. First, a percentage of the agent is lost by incineration in
4012-487: The problem was the Livens Projector . This was effectively a large-bore mortar, dug into the ground that used the gas cylinders themselves as projectiles – firing a 14 kg cylinder up to 1500 m. This combined the gas volume of cylinders with the range of artillery. Over the years, there were some refinements in this technique. In the 1950s and early 1960s, chemical artillery rockets and cluster bombs contained
4080-639: The systematic killing of the Jews (though not actually doing anything to stop it) and who wanted to end the war when realizing that Germany was doomed to lose it; Göring is contrasted with Goebbels , who according to Wheatley "was on the extreme left" and "took seriously the Socialist part of National Socialism". During the 1930s, Wheatley conceived a series of mysteries, presented as case files, including testimonies, letters, and pieces of evidence such as hairs or pills. The reader had to inspect this evidence to solve
4148-440: The target area is only low or not existent and after four hours sarin or similar agents are not detectable anymore. By contrast, persistent agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks, complicating decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Nonvolatile liquid agents, such as blister agents and the oily VX nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into
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#17328008444864216-566: The theme of black magic for his next book. He wrote: "The fact that I had read extensively about ancient religions gave me some useful background, but I required up-to-date information about occult circles in this country. My friend, Tom Driberg , who then lived in a mews flat just behind us in Queen's Gate, proved most helpful. He introduced me to Aleister Crowley , the Reverend Montague Summers and Rollo Ahmed." The release
4284-423: The use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force . The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax ) is considered biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; however, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g. toxins such as botulinum toxin , ricin , and saxitoxin )
4352-403: The winter of 1947, Wheatley penned 'A Letter to Posterity' and buried it in an urn at his country home. The letter was intended to be discovered some time in the future (it was found in 1969, when the house was demolished for redevelopment of the property). He predicted in it that the socialist reforms , which were introduced by the post-war government , would result inevitably in the abolition of
4420-484: Was a British writer whose prolific output of thrillers and occult novels made him one of the world's best-selling authors from the 1930s through to the 1960s. Wheatley was born at 10, Raleigh Gardens, Brixton Hill , London, the eldest of three children--and only son--of Albert David Wheatley (died 1927) and Florence Elizabeth Harriet (1874-1955), daughter of ironmaster William Yates Baker, of Aspen House, 219, Brixton Hill. Wheatley's father owned Wheatley & Son,
4488-872: Was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant into the Royal Field Artillery during the First World War, receiving his basic training at Biscot Camp in Luton . He was assigned to the City of London Brigade and the 36th (Ulster) Division . Dennis was gassed in a chlorine attack during Passchendaele and was invalided out, having served in Flanders , on the Ypres Salient , and in France at Cambrai and Saint-Quentin . In 1919 he took over management of
4556-434: Was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective gas masks useless. In July 1917, the Germans employed sulfur mustard . Mustard agents easily penetrate leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. Chemical warfare agents are divided into lethal and incapacitating categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of
4624-412: Was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare . Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In many cases the gasses used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Some 1.3 million gas casualties were recorded, which may have included up to 260,000 civilian casualties. The interwar years saw
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