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129-450: During a raging desert battle between the cities of Basra and Baghdad , soldier Basran is fatally wounded. Before dying, Basran takes a medallion from his killer's neck and gives it to his son Harun, urging him to somehow end the senseless killings. Harun rides to Baghdad and meets shopkeeper Barcus. Harun strikes a deal in which, for ten dinars, he can pick any item in Barcus' shop. Under

258-709: A Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās , the Persian emperor of the Safavid Persian Empire , expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain, and that date is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran . With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from

387-761: A basically Akhbari Shia Basrans. The shortness of the Zand rule rendered this untenable. In 1911, the Encyclopaedia Britannica reported "about 4000 Jews and perhaps 6000 Christians" living in Basra Vilayet, but no Turks other than Ottoman officials. In 1884 the Ottomans responded to local pressure from the Shi'as of the south by detaching the southern districts of the Baghdad vilayet and creating

516-541: A city with five districts, and appointed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as its first governor. The city was built in a circular plan according to the Partho-Sasanian architecture . Abu Musa led the conquest of Khuzestan from 639 to 642, and was ordered by Umar to aid Uthman ibn Abi al-As , then fighting Iran from a new, more easterly miṣr at Tawwaj . In 650, the Rashidun Caliph Uthman reorganised

645-616: A coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from north): Iran; Oman 's Musandam exclave ; the United Arab Emirates ; Saudi Arabia; Qatar , on a peninsula off the Saudi coast; Bahrain , an island nation; Kuwait ; and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states in the region. Exclusive economic zones in

774-508: A combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them. Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on

903-642: A few coral reefs . Compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between. This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially the Shatt al-Arab (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations). Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in

1032-561: A further 40,000 with no known grave are commemorated at Basra Memorial . Both sites are suffering from neglect with the Commonwealth War Graves Commission having withdrawn from the country in 2007. During World War II (1939–1945), Basra was an important port through which flowed much of the equipment and supplies sent to the Soviet Union by other Allies of World War II . The population of Basra

1161-605: A giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry. In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves , and about 35% of

1290-494: A long time, a flourishing commercial and cultural center. It was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1668. It was fought over by Turks and Persians and was the scene of repeated attempts at resistance. From 1697 to 1701, Basra was once again under Safavid control . The Zand dynasty under Karim Khan Zand briefly occupied Basra after a long siege in 1775–9. The Zands attempted at introducing Usuli form of Shiism on

1419-509: A new vilayet of Basra . During World War I , British forces captured Basra from the Ottomans, occupying the city on 22 November 1914. British officials and engineers (including Sir George Buchanan ) subsequently modernized Basra's harbor, which due to the increased commercial activity in the area became one of the most important ports in the Persian Gulf, developing new mercantile links with India and East Asia . The graves of around 5,000 men from WW1 both are at Basra War Cemetery and

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1548-582: A pile of rags, he finds a magical golden sword that allows him to cut through solid metal. The sword will only manifest its powers when Harun wields it. Barcus warns him to be careful until they can translate the inscriptions on the blade. Meanwhile, Vizier Jafar urges Badgad's Caliph to fight Basra. This is all part of a plot to undermine the Caliph's reputation. The Caliph refuses, more worried about his rebellious daughter, princess Khairuzan. Jafar suggests that her headstrong ways may be tamed by marriage to Hadi,

1677-460: A port and airport. In recent years, the city has attracted a large number of investments, increasing its prosperity. The city has had many names throughout history, Basrah being the most common. In Arabic, the word baṣrah means "the overwatcher", which may have been an allusion to the city's origin as an Arab military base against the Sassanids . Others have argued that the name is derived from

1806-553: A reaction to Husayn ibn Ali 's popularity as the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . 'Ubayd Allah took over the control of Kufa . Husayn sent his cousin as an ambassador to the people of Kufa, but ʿUbaydullah executed Husayn cousin Muslim ibn Aqil amid fears of an uprising. ʿUbayd Allah amassed an army of thousands of soldiers and fought Husayn's army of approximately 70 in a place called Karbala near Kufa. ʿUbayd Allah's army

1935-482: A regular pattern of two-meter-high ridges in straight lines, separated by old canal beds. The ridges are extremely saline, with salt deposits up to 20 centimeters thick, and are completely barren. The former canal beds are less salty and can support a small population of salt-resistant plants. Contemporary authors recorded how the Zanj slaves were put to work clearing the fields of salty topsoil and putting them into piles;

2064-496: A slope for the water flow to carry salt deposits away. This required the clearing of salty topsoil by the Zanj slaves in order to keep the fields from becoming too saline to grow crops. After Basra was sacked in by Zanj rebels in the late 800s and then by the Qarmatians in the early 900s, there was no financial incentive to invest in restoring the irrigation system, and the infrastructure was almost completely abandoned. Finally, in

2193-550: A vast agricultural infrastructure in the Basra region. These investments were made with the expectation of a profitable return, indicating the value of the Basra food market. Although African Zanj slaves from the Indian Ocean slave trade were put to work on these construction projects, most of the labor was done by free men working for wages. Governors sometimes directly supervised these projects, but usually they simply assigned

2322-740: Is a mediterranean sea in West Asia . The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula . It is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz . The Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive reefs (mostly rocky, but also coral ), and abundant pearl oysters , however its ecology has been damaged by industrialization and oil spills . The Persian Gulf

2451-470: Is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as the Red Sea . Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution. Along the mediterranean regions of

2580-561: Is a port city in southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate , as well as the third largest city in Iraq overall, behind only Baghdad and Mosul . Located near the Iran–Iraq border at the north-easternmost extent of the Arabian Peninsula , the city is situated along the banks of the Shatt al-Arab that empties into the Persian Gulf . Basra is consistently one of

2709-453: Is consistently one of the hottest cities on the planet, with temperatures regularly exceeding 50 °C (122 °F) in July and August. In winter Basra experiences mild and somewhat moist conditions with average high temperatures around 20 °C (68 °F). On some winter nights, minimum temperatures are below 0 °C (32 °F). High humidity – sometimes exceeding 90% – is common due to

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2838-584: Is dedicated to John the Baptist , the chief prophet in Mandaeism , who also reverred by the Jews, Christians and Muslims. The city was also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities . During the 1930s, the Jews constituted 9.8% of the total population. However, most of them fled after a series of persecution, which began in 1941 and lasted till 1951. Between 1968 and 2003 , fewer than 300 Jews remained in

2967-468: Is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)". This inland sea of some 251,000 square kilometres (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz ; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab , which carries the waters of the Euphrates and

3096-470: Is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them. The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum, and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field , the world's largest offshore oilfield , is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing

3225-406: Is identical to the one Harun carries. Trying to kill the Caliph, Jafar slices the magic sword into a stone pillar, where it remains stuck. The guards kill the Caliph and go after Harun and Khairuzan, who escape and fabricate their deaths. Jafar and Hadi soon discover that they cannot pull the sword out of the column and call men in from across Bagdad to attempt to pull it out. While Khairuzan gathers

3354-666: Is in the Persian Gulf Basin , which is of Cenozoic origin and related to the subduction of the Arabian Plate under the Zagros Mountains . The current flooding of the basin started 15,000 years ago due to rising sea levels of the Holocene glacial retreat . The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit

3483-460: Is known as the "Cradle of Islamic Culture". The Sunni Muslim population is small and dropping in their percentage as more Iraqi Shias move into Basra for various job or welfare opportunities. The satellite town of Az Zubayr in the direction of Kuwait was a Sunni majority town, but the burgeoning population of Basra has spilled over into Zubair, turning it into an extension of Basra with a slight Shia majority as well. Assyrians were recorded in

3612-430: Is negatively affected by new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution from oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and various other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs. After Australian waters, which are estimated to contain some 80,000 dugong inhabitants,

3741-408: Is now the Iranian province of Bushehr , is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD. Portuguese influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years; however, since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance contended with

3870-410: Is penetrated by a complex network of canals and streams, vital for irrigation and other agricultural use. These canals were once used to transport goods and people throughout the city, but during the last two decades, pollution and a continuous drop in water levels have made river navigation impossible in the canals. Basra is roughly 110 km (68 mi) from the Persian Gulf. The city is located along

3999-620: Is still a deficit of 416 cubic kilometres (100 cu mi) per year. This difference is supplied by currents at the Strait of Hormuz . The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from the bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –1.84 m (6.0 ft)/year, precipitation = 0.08 m (0.26 ft)/year, inflow from

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4128-542: Is the meeting place of the two seas, the salt and the fresh." Ibn Battuta also noted that Basra consisted of three-quarters: the Hudayl quarter, the Banu Haram quarter, and the Iranian quarter ( mahallat al-Ajam ). Fred Donner adds: "If the first two reveal that Basra was still predominantly an Arab town, the existence of an Iranian quarter clearly reveals the legacy of long centuries of intimate contact between Basra and

4257-517: Is used by the International Hydrographic Organization . The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since the 1960s. Rivalry between Iran and some Arab states, along with the emergence of pan-Arabism and Arab nationalism , has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries. Names beyond these two have also been applied to or proposed for this body of water. The region of

4386-754: The Al Qasimi tribe. This led to the British mounting the Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 . The campaign led to the signing of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the ' Pirate Coast '. From 1763 until 1971, the British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called

4515-659: The Aramaic word basratha , meaning "place of huts, settlement". The city was founded at the beginning of the Islamic era in 636 and began as a garrison encampment for Arab tribesmen constituting the armies of the Rashidun Caliph Umar . A tell a few kilometers south of the present city still marks the original site which was a military site. While defeating the forces of the Sassanid Empire there,

4644-666: The Mongol Dominions map (1300–1405) shows Basra as being under Mongol control. In 1290 fighting erupted at the Persian Gulf port of Basra among the Genoese , between the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions. Ibn Battuta visited Basra in the 14th century, noting it "was renowned throughout the whole world, spacious in area and elegant in its courts, remarkable for its numerous fruit-gardens and its choice fruits, since it

4773-563: The Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India. The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf. Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after

4902-439: The Shatt al-Arab waterway, 55 kilometers (34 mi) from the Persian Gulf and 545 kilometers (339 mi) from Baghdad , Iraq's capital and largest city. Basra has a hot desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ), like the rest of the surrounding region, though it receives slightly more precipitation than inland locations due to its location near the coast. During the summer months, from June to August, Basra

5031-505: The Tigris . In Iran , this is called "Arvand Rud" (lit. Swift River ). Its length is 989 kilometres (615 miles), with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 km (35 mi) wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. Overall, the waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres (295 feet) and an average depth of 50 metres (164 feet). Countries with

5160-541: The Trucial States ) and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf . The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War , in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers . It is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War , the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait . The United States' role in

5289-574: The Virgin Mary in the church was brought from India in 1882. One of the largest communities of pre-Islamic Mandaeans live in the city, whose headquarters was in the area formerly called Suk esh-Sheikh. Basra is home to second highest concentration of the Mandaean community, after Baghdad. As of recent estimates 350 Mandaean families are found in the city. Dair al-Yahya is one of the most important Mandaean temples, located in Basra. The temple

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5418-624: The World War I , the British forces captured Basra and incorporated it into the Mandate for Mesopotamia , and subsequently Mandatory Iraq , and later the independent Kingdom of Iraq in 1932. It became an important industrial center in the Persian Gulf. During the Iran–Iraq War , Basra was heavily shelled and besieged by the Iranian forces. The city suffered heavy damage during the Gulf War. It

5547-450: The collared kingfishers were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman. Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles (129 km) from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman. Such real estate expansion could prove devastating to this subspecies. A UN plan to protect

5676-627: The " Persian Corridor ". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of the Trans-Iranian Railway . The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against the Nazi invasion . The piracy in the Persian Gulf was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by

5805-525: The 2003 invasion. Workers in Basra's oil industry have been involved in extensive organization and labour conflict. They held a two-day strike in August 2003, and formed the nucleus of the independent General Union of Oil Employees (GUOE) in June 2004. The union held a one-day strike in July 2005, and publicly opposes plans for privatizing the industry. In March through to May 2003, the outskirts of Basra were

5934-521: The Arabian Sea, including the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea , the Gulf of Kutch , the Gulf of Suez , the Gulf of Aqaba , the Gulf of Aden , and the Gulf of Oman , dolphins and finless porpoises are the most common marine mammals in the waters, while larger whales and orcas are rarer today. Historically, whales had been abundant in the Persian Gulf before commercial hunts wiped them out. Whales were reduced even further by illegal mass hunts by

6063-576: The Arabs, there is also a community of Afro-Iraqi peoples, known as Zanj . The Zanj are an African Muslim ethnic group living in Iraq and are a mix of African peoples taken from the coast of the area of modern-day Kenya as slaves in the 900s. They now number around 200,000 in Iraq . Basra is a major Shia city, with the old Akhbari Shiism progressively being overwhelmed by the Usuli Shiism. It

6192-728: The Basra state treasury. A 1200 map "on the eve of the Mongol invasions" shows the Abbasid Caliphate as ruling lower Iraq and, presumably, Basra. The Assassin Rashid-ad-Din-Sinan was born in Basra on or between 1131 and 1135. In 1258, the Mongols under Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad and ended Abbasid rule. By some accounts, Basra capitulated to the Mongols to avoid a massacre. The Mamluk Bahri dynasty map (1250–1382) shows Basra as being under their area of control, and

6321-467: The Gulf of Aqaba), omura's whale , minke whale , and orca also swim into the Persian Gulf, while many other large species such as blue whale , sei , and sperm whales were once migrants into the Gulf of Oman and off the coasts in deeper waters, and still migrate into the Red Sea, but mainly in deeper waters of outer seas. In 2017, waters of the Persian Gulf along Abu Dhabi were revealed to hold

6450-633: The Iranian Buyid dynasty ruled Baghdad and most of Iraq. Abu al Qasim al-Baridis, who still controlled Basra and Wasit , were defeated and their lands taken by the Buyids in 947. Adud al-Dawla and his sons Diya' al-Dawla and Samsam al-Dawla were the Buyid rulers of Basra during the 970s, 980s and 990s. Sanad al-Dawla al-Habashi ( c.  921 –977), the brother of the Emir of Iraq Izz al-Dawla ,

6579-569: The Iranian plateau." The Arab Al-Mughamis tribe established control over Basra in the early fifteenth century, however, they quickly fell under influence of the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu , successively. The Al-Mughamis' control of Basra had become nominal by 1436; de facto control of Basra from 1436 to 1508 was in the hands of the Moshasha . In the latter year, during the reign of King ( Shah ) Ismail I ( r.   1501–1524),

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6708-451: The Iraqi government who violently put down the rebellion, with much death and destruction inflicted on Basra. As part of the Iraqi no-fly zones conflict , United States Air Force fighter jets carried out two airstrikes against Basra on 25 January 1999. The airstrikes resulted in missiles landing in the al-Jumhuriya neighborhood of Basra, killed 11 Iraqi civilians and wounding 59. General Anthony Zinni , then commander of U.S. forces in

6837-409: The Lakhum tribe , who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along

6966-399: The Magnificent as his suzerain who in turn confirmed him as governor of Basra. The Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire exercised a great deal of independence, and they even often raised their own troops. Though Basra had submitted to the Ottomans, the Ottoman hold over Basra was tenuous at the time. This changed a decade later; in 1546, following a tribal struggle involving the Moshasha and

7095-404: The Middle East adjacent to the Gulf. The world's oldest known civilization ( Sumer ) developed along the Persian Gulf and southern Mesopotamia . The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found at H3 in Kuwait, dating to the mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved the Ubaid settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along

7224-452: The Middle East are located in this region. The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz . The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extirpation or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs , Persian Gulf

7353-417: The Muslim commander Utbah ibn Ghazwan erected his camp on the site of an old Persian military settlement called Vaheštābād Ardašīr , which was destroyed by the Arabs. While the name Al-Basrah in Arabic can mean "the overwatch", other sources claim that the name actually originates from the Persian word Bas-rāh or Bassorāh, meaning "where many ways come together". In 639, Umar established this encampment as

7482-525: The Ottoman census as early as 1911, and a small number of them live in Basra. However, a significant number of the modern community are refugees fleeing persecution from ISIS in the Nineveh Plains , Mosul, and northern Iraq . But ever since the victory of Iraq against the ISIS in 2017 , many Christians have returned to their homeland in the Nineveh plains. In 2018 there are about a few thousand Christians in Basra. The Armenian Church in Basra, dates from 1736 but has been rebuilt three times. The portrait of

7611-442: The Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman also raised concerns that habitats of species such as the hawksbill turtle , greater flamingo , and booted warbler may be destroyed. The dolphins that frequent the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps

7740-437: The Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the 20th century. On July 3, 1988, Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken the Airbus A300 operating the flight for an Iranian F-14 Tomcat ) while it was flying over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board. The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai . In 2018,

7869-426: The Persian Gulf has been inhabited since the Paleolithic . During most of the Last Glacial Period (115,000–11,700 years Before Present ), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around 125 metres (410 ft) metres below present values during the Last Glacial Maximum ) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around 35 metres (115 ft) and at max around 100 metres (330 ft) metres depth) most of

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7998-422: The Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die. The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival. A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the Persian Gulf, which require tidal flow and

8127-410: The Persian Gulf was called Pūdīg , which comes from Avestan : Pūitika , lit.   'cleansing', a name mentioned in Bundahishn . The body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, and other countries and organizations have begun using Arabian Gulf. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf)

8256-410: The Persian Gulf was called many different names. The Assyrians called it the "Bitter Sea". In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis ( Pars , or modern Fars , also known as Persia), in the southwestern region of the Iranian plateau . Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf". In

8385-455: The Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land, forming a flat floodplain where a number of rivers converged. This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf was formed when sea level rose during the early Holocene , from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development of Neolithic farming cultures in regions of

8514-457: The Persian Gulf, acknowledged that it was possible that "a missile may have been errant." While such casualty numbers pale in comparison to later events, the bombing occurred one day after Arab foreign ministers, meeting in Egypt, refused to condemn four days of air strikes against Iraq in December 1998. This was described by Iraqi information minister Human Abdel-Khaliq as giving U.S.-led forces "an Arab green card" to continue their involvement in

8643-448: The Persian Gulf. Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing to global warming but mostly to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain. Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to

8772-443: The Persian Gulf. Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company , and the Royal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab , Tigris , and

8901-521: The Persian Gulf: Countries by coastline length : The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf is Qeshm island , belonging to Iran and located in the Strait of Hormuz . Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf include Greater Tunb , Lesser Tunb and Kish administered by Iran, Bubiyan administered by Kuwait, Tarout administered by Saudi Arabia, and Dalma administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been

9030-405: The Persian frontier, installed ʿAbdullah ibn Amir as Basra's governor, and put the military's southern wing under Basra's control. Ibn Amir led his forces to their final victory over Yazdegerd III , the Sassanid King of Kings . In 656, Uthman was murdered and Ali was appointed Caliph. Ali first installed Uthman ibn Hanif as Basra's governor, who was followed by ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas. These men held

9159-405: The Portuguese acted as military protectors of Basra, and in 1624 the Portuguese assisted the Ottoman Pasha of Basra in repelling a Persian invasion. The Portuguese were granted a share of the customs revenue and freedom from tolls. From about 1625 until 1668, Basra and the Delta marshlands were in the hands of local chieftains independent of the Ottoman administration at Baghdad. Basra was, for

9288-441: The Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās , which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. The Ottoman Empire reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871. Under military and political pressure from

9417-473: The Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Along with Bryde's whales , these once common residents can still can be seen in deeper marginal seas such as Gulf of Aden, Israel coasts, and in the Strait of Hormuz . Other species such as the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale , (also historically common in Gulf of Aden and increasingly sighted in the Red Sea since 2006, including in

9546-426: The Strait = 33.66 m (110.4 ft)/year, outflow from the Strait = -32.11 m (105.3 ft)/year, and the balance is 0 m (0 ft)/year. Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and depth each element equal to 1–10 metres (3.3–32.8 ft) are predominantly used in computer models. Before being given its present name,

9675-473: The Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be 2,000 cubic metres (71,000 cu ft) per second), as well as precipitation over the sea which is around 180 mm (7.1 in)/year in Qeshm Island . The evaporation of the sea is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there

9804-588: The UK opened a permanent military base, HMS  Jufair , in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew from East of Suez in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman. Eight nations have coasts along the Persian Gulf: Bahrain , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , and the United Arab Emirates . The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of

9933-457: The Vizier's son. After learning of the arranged marriage, Khairuzan disguises herself as a boy and escapes the palace, stealing Harun's horse in the process. She is finally caught by both Hadi and Harun, who begin to fight. Harun wins and discovers he is invincible while wielding the golden sword. Khairuzan claims to be a boy slave and Harun brings her to the city, where they learn from Barcus that

10062-677: The addition of artificial islands for tourist attractions , such as The World Islands in Dubai and The Pearl Island in Doha . Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in the past by colonial powers such as the Portuguese and the British in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires. The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through

10191-520: The area before Basra was founded. Indeed, in an anecdote related by al-Baladhuri , al-Ahnaf ibn Qays pleaded to the caliph Umar that, whereas other Muslim settlers were established in well-watered areas with extensive farmland, the people of Basra had only "reedy salt marsh which never dries up and where pasture never grows, bounded on the east by brackish water and on the west by waterless desert. We have no cultivation or stock farming to provide us with our livelihood or food, which comes to us as through

10320-542: The book of Nearchus known as Indikê (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned for multiple times meaning "Persian gulf". During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula , the name of "Persian ( Pars ) Sea" is widely found in

10449-610: The city during the height of summer in 2018. Some protesters stormed the Iranian consulate in the city. In 2023, the city hosted the long scheduled 25th Arabian Gulf Cup where the Iraqi team won. Basra is located in the Arabian Peninsula on the Shatt-Al-Arab waterway, downstream of which is the Persian Gulf. The Shatt-Al-Arab and Basra waterways define the eastern and western borders of Basra, respectively. The city

10578-411: The city for Ali until the latter's death in 661. Basra's infrastructure was planned. Why Basra was chosen as a site for the new city remains unclear. The original site lay 15km from the Shatt al-Arab and thus lacked access to maritime trade and, more importantly, to fresh water. Additionally, neither historical texts nor archaeological finds indicate that there was much of an agricultural hinterland in

10707-533: The city, was kidnapped and killed on 2 August 2005. On 19 September 2005, two undercover British Special Air Service (SAS) soldiers were stopped by the Iraqi Police at a roadblock in Basra. The two soldiers were part of an SAS operation investigating allegations of insurgent infiltration into the Iraqi Police. When the police attempted to pull the soldiers out of their car, they opened fire on

10836-633: The city. After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, most of them emigrated to abroad. The Tweig Synagogue in Basra, is currently abandoned. The Old Mosque of Basra is the first mosque in Islam outside the Arabian peninsula. Sinbad Island is located in the centre of Shatt Al-Arab, near the Miinaalmakl, and extends above the Bridge Khaled and is a tourist landmark. The Muhhmad Baquir Al-Sadr Bridge , at

10965-712: The compiled written texts. At the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the Great, which belongs to the fifth century BC: King Darius says: I ordered to dig this ( Canal of the Pharaohs ) canal from the river that is called Nile ( Pirâva ) and flows in Egypt ( Mudrâyâ ), to the sea that begins in Persia ( Pârsa ). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended. In Sassanian times,

11094-552: The conflict. A second revolt in 1999 led to mass executions by the Iraqi government in and around Basra. Subsequently, the Iraqi government deliberately neglected the city, and much commerce was diverted to Umm Qasr . These alleged abuses are to feature amongst the charges against the former regime to be considered by the Iraq Special Tribunal set up by the Iraq Interim Government following

11223-404: The country's economic capital. It has emerged as an important commercial and industrial center for the country, as the city is home to a large number of manufacturing industries ranging from petrochemical to water treatment . Basra is home to numerous tourist spots including mosques, palaces, churches, synagogues, parks and beaches. It has transformed itself into a modern bustling metropolis, with

11352-455: The crowd were purportedly killed. The British Ministry of Defence initially denied carrying out the operation, which was criticised by Iraqi officials, before subsequently admitting it and claiming the two soldiers would have been executed if they were not rescued. The British transferred control of Basra province to the Iraqi authorities in 2007, four-and-a-half years after the invasion. A BBC survey of local residents found that 86% thought

11481-703: The elite Basra School of Grammar , the rival and sister school of the Kufa School of Grammar . Several outstanding intellectuals of the age were Basrans; Arab polymath Ibn al-Haytham , the Arab literary giant al-Jahiz , and the Sufi mystic Rabia Basri . The Zanj Rebellion by the agricultural slaves of the lowlands affected the area. In 871, the Zanj sacked Basra. In 923, the Qarmatians , an extremist Muslim sect, invaded and devastated Basra. From 945 to 1055,

11610-462: The entire Gulf coast. For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC , the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the Dilmun civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha . In the second century

11739-669: The fall of the Parthian Empire , the Sassanid Empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road , were important trade routes in the Sassanid Empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf. Siraf , an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what

11868-727: The first Safavid ruler, Basra and the Moshasha became part of the Safavid Empire. This was the first time Basra had come under Safavid suzerainty. In 1524, following Ismail I's death, the local ruling dynasty of Basra, the Al-Mughamis, resumed effective control over the city. Twelve years later, in 1536, during the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555 , the Bedouin ruler of Basra, Rashid ibn Mughamis, acknowledged Suleiman

11997-607: The governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad , Midhat Pasha , the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule. The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start of World War I and the need for troops in various other frontiers. In World War II , the Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as

12126-564: The help of Kufans who Mukhtar exiled. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan reconquered Basra in 691, and Basra remained loyal to his governor al-Hajjaj during Ibn Ashʿath's mutiny (699–702). However, Basra did support the rebellion of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab against Yazid II during the 720s. In the late 740s, Basra fell to as-Saffah of the Abbasid Caliphate . During the time of the Abbasids, Basra became an intellectual center and home to

12255-515: The highest minimum temperatures on any given day, only outshone by Khasab , Oman and Death Valley , United States . The lowest temperature ever recorded in Basra was −4.7 °C (23.5 °F) on 22 January 1964. The city of Basra was once well known for its agriculture, but that has since altered due to rising temperatures, increased water salinity , and desertification . Basra Metropolitan Region comprises three towns—Basra city proper, Al-ʿAshar, and Al-Maʿqil—and several villages. In Basra

12384-476: The hottest cities in Iraq, with summer temperatures regularly exceeding 50 °C (122 °F). The hottest recorded temperature in Basra is 53.9°C. A major industrial center of Iraq, the majority of the city's population are Shi'ite Muslim Arabs . The city was built in 636. It played an important role as a regional hub of trade and commerce in the Islamic Golden Age . Historically, Basra is one of

12513-471: The land while most of the financing was done by private investors. The result of these investments was a massive irrigation system covering some 57,000 hectares between the Shatt al-Arab and the now-dry western channel of the Tigris. This system was first reported in 962 , when just 8,000 hectares of it remained in use, for the cultivation of date palms , while the rest had become desert. This system consists of

12642-774: The late 900s, the city of Basra was entirely relocated, with the old site being abandoned and a new one developing on the banks of the Shatt al-Arab, where it has remained ever since. The Sufyanids held Basra until Yazid I 's death in 683. The Sufyanids' first governor was Umayyad ʿAbdullah, a renowned military leader, commanding fealty and financial demands from Karballah, but poor governor. In 664, Mu'awiya I replaced him with Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan , often called "ibn Abihi" ("son of his own father"), who became infamous for his draconian rules regarding public order. On Ziyad's death in 673, his son ʿUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad became governor. In 680, Yazid I ordered ʿUbayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as

12771-626: The local powers and the Ottoman Empire. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the Safavid Empire allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century. Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama 's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521,

12900-490: The local ruler of Zakiya (near Basra), the Ottomans sent a force to Basra. This resulted in tighter (but still, nominal) Ottoman control over Basra. In 1523, the Portuguese under the command of António Tenreiro crossed from Aleppo to Basra. Nuno da Cunha took Basra in 1529. In 1550, the local Kingdom of Basra and tribal rulers trusted the Portuguese against the Ottomans, from then on the Portuguese threatened to invoke an invasion and conquest of Basra several times. From 1595

13029-461: The mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway. Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections. Real estate development in

13158-461: The most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs. The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native. Of these 700 species, more than 80% are reef associated. These reefs are primarily rocky, but there are also

13287-423: The most lucrative world supply of oil, and the lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, have had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs. The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the Persian Gulf home. Concerns regarding the endangerment of the kalbaensis subspecies of

13416-558: The officers, killing two. The SAS soldiers attempted to escape before being beaten and arrested by the police, who took them to the Al Jameat Police Station. British forces subsequently identified the location of the two soldiers and carried out a rescue mission , storming the police station and transporting them to a safe location. A civilian crowd gathered around the rescue force during the incident and attacked it; three British soldiers were injured and two members of

13545-533: The ports, from which the fictional Sinbad the Sailor journeyed. During the Islamic era, the city expanded rapidly. It was occupied by the Safavid , from 1697 to 1701. Basra came under Portuguese control , from 1526 to 1668. The city remained under the administration of the Ottoman Empire, as part of Basra vilayet , which was populated mainly by Shi'ite Muslims and flourished as a commercial and trade center. During

13674-464: The presence of British forces since 2003 had had an overall negative effect on the province. Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf was appointed Police Chief by the central government with the task of taking on the militias. He was outspoken against the targeting of women by the militias. Talking to the BBC, he said that his determination to tackle the militia had led to almost daily assassination attempts. This

13803-409: The proximity to the marshy Persian Gulf. An all-time high temperature was recorded on 22 July 2016, when daytime readings soared to 53.9 °C (129.0 °F), which is the highest temperature that has ever been recorded in Iraq. This is one of the hottest temperatures ever measured on the planet. The following night, the night time low temperature was 38.8 °C (101.8 °F), which was one of

13932-409: The result was the ridges that remain today. This represents an enormous amount of work: H.S. Nelson calculated that 45 million tons of earth were moved in total, and with his extremely high estimate of one man moving two tons of soil per day, this would have taken a decade of strenuous work by 25,000 men. Ultimately, Basra's irrigation canals were unsustainable, because they were built at too little of

14061-624: The scene of some of the heaviest fighting in the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003. The British forces, led by the 7th Armoured Brigade , captured the city on 6 April 2003. This city was the first stop for the United States and the United Kingdom during the invasion of Iraq . On 21 April 2004, a series of bomb blasts ripped through the city, killing 74 people. The Multi-National Division (South-East) , under British command,

14190-617: The southern shorelines. During the seventh century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores. Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the Median , Achaemenid , Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to

14319-437: The surface of the water, as the corals are to biological health of the Persian Gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf. However, with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat

14448-422: The sword's first inscription promises that whoever unsheathes the sword will gain the throne. Later, Harun realizes that Khairuzan is a girl. He protects her when a guard questions them, and they are both thrown to the dungeon, where they fall in love and kiss. After a minor quarrel, Khairuzan makes herself known to the guards and moves back to her harem . Knowing of the sword's magical powers, she declares that only

14577-416: The throat of an ostrich ." Nevertheless, Basra overcame these natural disadvantages and rapidly grew into the second-largest city in Iraq, if not the entire Islamic world. Its role as a military encampment meant that the soldiers had to be fed, and since those soldiers were receiving government salaries, they had money to spend. Thus, both the government and private entrepreneurs invested heavily in developing

14706-425: The tournament. Thinking that he is not aristocratic enough to marry her, Harun is surprised by this question, and the two share a kiss. He then races to Barcus and proclaims his newfound joy. Barcus warns him that the second inscription counsels that the bearer's true reward will arrive in a grave of stone. Nonetheless, Harun refuses to listen. At the tournament, Hadi defeats Harun by cheating. Harun realizes his sword

14835-495: The townspeople around her, Harun and Barcus sneak back into the palace. Harun fights with the guards and is almost captured when Khairuzan and her people storm the palace. He grabs the sword from the stone, causing it to collapse on top of Jafar and Hadi. After Khairuzan bestows on Harun the title Al-Rhashid (the righteous), the two kiss. The film was supposed to have starred Farley Granger . Basra Basra ( Arabic : ٱلْبَصْرَة , romanized :  al-Baṣrah )

14964-470: The union of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was completed in 2017. Sayab's House Ruins is the site of the most famous home of the poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab . There is also a statue of Sayab, one of the statues in Basra done by the artist and sculptor Nada' Kadhum, located on al-Basrah Corniche; it was unveiled in 1972. Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf , sometimes called the Arabian Gulf ,

15093-522: The vast majority of the population are ethnic Arabs of the Adnanite or the Qahtanite tribes. The tribes located in Basra include Bani Malik , Al-shwelat , Suwa'id , Al-bo Mohammed , Al-Badr , Al-Ubadi , Ruba'ah Sayyid tribes (descendants of Muhammad) and other Marsh Arabs tribes. There are also Feyli Kurds living in the eastern side of the city, they are mainly merchants. In addition to

15222-408: The waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia make the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species, hosting some 7,500 remaining dugongs. However, the current number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is. Ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest, ever-present international conflict,

15351-429: The winner of a tournament may claim her hand. She names Harun as her guard, and despite being infuriated with his new predicament, he watches admiringly as she is very kind to the poor townspeople. Meanwhile, Khairuzan's handmaiden, Bakhamra, informs Hadi about the magic sword. He and Jafar drug Harun, steal the sword and replace it with a replica. Khairuzan wakes Harun from his stupor and asks why he has not signed up for

15480-520: The world's largest population of Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphins . One of the more unusual marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is the dugong ( Dugong dugon ). Also called "sea cows", for their grazing habits and mild manner resembling livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and they can grow up to 3 metres (9.8 feet) in length. These gentle mammals feed on sea grass and are closer relatives of certain land mammals than are dolphins and whales . Their simple grass diet

15609-401: Was 101,535 in 1947, and reached 219,167 in 1957. The University of Basrah was founded in 1964. By 1977, the population had risen to a peak population of some 1.5 million. The population declined during the Iran–Iraq War , being under 900,000 in the late 1980s, possibly reaching a low point of just over 400,000 during the worst of the war. The city was repeatedly shelled by Iran and

15738-410: Was a major center for the 1991 and 1999 uprisings in Iraq . Basra was the first city to be occupied by the coalition forces, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Since the end of the war, Basra's prosperity has gathered numerous population. Today Basra's majority is of Arab Shi'ite Muslims , with Sunni Muslims , Arab Christians and Afro-Iraqis as minority. Iraq's main port city , Basra is known as

15867-692: Was engaged in foreign internal defense missions in Basra Governorate and surrounding areas during this time. Political groups centered in Basra were reported to have close links with political parties already in power in the Iraqi government , despite opposition from Iraqi Sunnis and the Kurds . January 2005 elections saw several radical politicians gain office, supported by religious parties. American journalist Steven Vincent , who had been researching and reporting on corruption and militia activity in

15996-591: Was governor of Basra and built a library of 15,000 books. The Oghuz Turk Tughril Beg was the leader of the Seljuks, who expelled the Shiite Buyid dynasty. He was the first Seljuk ruler to style himself Sultan and Protector of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Great Friday Mosque was constructed in Basra. In 1122, Imad ad-Din Zengi received Basra as a fief. In 1126, Zengi suppressed a revolt and in 1129, Dabis looted

16125-491: Was scheduled to host the 22nd Arabian Gulf Cup tournament in Basra Sports City , a newly built multi-use sports complex. The tournament was shifted to Riyadh , Saudi Arabia , after concerns over preparations and security. Iraq was also due to host the 2013 tournament, but that was moved to Bahrain. At least 10 demonstrators died as they protested against the lack of clean drinking water and electrical power in

16254-414: Was switched and suspects Khairuzan to be responsible. After being jilted by Hadi, Bakhamra reveals his scheme to Harun. Hadi is about to bring his unwilling bride to bed, when Harun finds him. Captured by Hadi's guards, Harun is brought before Jafar. Bakhamra and the Caliph overhear the vizier's plan to kill them and blame Harun. When the Caliph orders Jafar arrested, the vizier brings out his medallion, which

16383-704: Was taken as sign that he was serious in opposing the militias. In March 2008, the Iraqi Army launched a major offensive, code-named Charge of the White Knights ( Saulat al-Fursan ), aimed at forcing the Mahdi Army out of Basra. The assault was planned by General Mohan Furaiji and approved by Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki . In April 2008, following the failure to disarm militant groups, both Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf and General Mohan Furaiji were removed from their positions in Basra. Basra

16512-515: Was the site of many fierce battles, such as Operation Ramadan (1982) and the Siege of Basra (1987). After the war, Saddam erected 99 memorial statues to Iraqi military officers killed during the war along the bank of the Shatt-al-Arab river, all pointing their fingers towards Iran. After the 1991 Gulf War a rebellion against Saddam erupted in Basra. The widespread revolt was against

16641-587: Was victorious; Husayn and his followers were killed and their heads were sent to Yazid as proof. Ibn al-Harith spent his year in office trying to put down Nafi' ibn al-Azraq's Kharijite uprising in Khuzestan . In 685, Ibn al-Zubayr, requiring a practical ruler, appointed Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar Finally, Ibn al-Zubayr appointed his own brother Mus'ab. In 686, the revolutionary al-Mukhtar led an insurrection at Kufa, and put an end to ʿUbaydullah ibn Ziyad near Mosul . In 687, Musʿab defeated al-Mukhtar with

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