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71-468: The story is written as a collection of journal entries narrated in the first person . The journal was written by a woman whose physician husband has rented an old mansion for the summer. Forgoing other rooms in the house, the husband confines the woman to an upstairs nursery. As a form of treatment, the husband forbids the journal writer from working or writing, and encourages her to eat well and get plenty of air so that she can recuperate from what he calls

142-582: A bibliography of writings by American female physicians, mentioning over forty of her own works. In 1894, she wrote Common Sense Applied to Women's Suffrage, which was later reprinted and used to support the women's suffrage movement in the United States. It expanded on an address she made in 1894 before a constitutional convention in Albany, and was reprinted in 1915 and contributed to the final successful push for women's suffrage. Also in 1894, after

213-480: A pharmacy college in the United States. Jacobi had a long career practicing medicine, teaching, writing, and advocating for women's rights , especially in medical education . Her scientific rebuttal of the popular idea that menstruation made women unsuited to education was influential in the fight for women's educational opportunities . Jacobi was a founding member of the League for Political Education and

284-490: A "struggle in which a male-dominated medical establishment attempts to silence women". Gilman's works challenge the social construction of women by a patriarchal medical discourse that forced them to be "silent, powerless, and passive". In the period in which Gilman wrote, women were frequently considered (and treated) as inferiors, prone to be sickly and weak. In this time period, it was thought that women who received formal education (amongst other causes) could develop hysteria ,

355-442: A "temporary nervous depression – a slight hysterical tendency", a common diagnosis in women at the time. As the reader continues through the journal entries, he experiences the writer's gradual descent into madness with nothing better to do than observe the peeling yellow wallpaper in her room. The story describes a young woman and her husband. He imposes a rest cure on her when she suffers " temporary nervous depression " after

426-522: A Portuguese Nun ( Lettres portugaises ) (1669) generally attributed to Gabriel-Joseph de La Vergne, comte de Guilleragues , though a small minority still regard Marianna Alcoforado as the author, is claimed to be intended to be part of a miscellany of Guilleragues prose and poetry. The founder of the epistolary novel in English is said by many to be James Howell (1594–1666) with "Familiar Letters" (1645–50), who writes of prison, foreign adventure, and

497-403: A bed bolted to the floor, and a gate at the top of the stairs, but blames all these on children who must have resided there. The narrator devotes many journal entries to describing the wallpaper in the room – its "sickly" color, its "yellow" smell, its bizarre and disturbing pattern like "an interminable string of toadstools, budding and sprouting in endless convolutions," its missing patches, and

568-518: A case that "The Yellow Wall-Paper", in its original form, did not represent a literal protest against Mitchell (a neurologist who treated Gilman in 1887) and his treatment. Rather, it emerged from Charlotte's troubled relationship with her husband Walter, personified in the story's physician. In demanding a traditional wife, Walter denied Charlotte personal freedom, squelched her intellectual energy, and characterized her illness. In another interpretation, Sari Edelstein has argued that "The Yellow Wallpaper"

639-401: A convent correspond over a 17-year period, exchanging letters describing their lives. Mary Shelley employs the epistolary form in her novel Frankenstein (1818). Shelley uses the letters as one of a variety of framing devices, as the story is presented through the letters of a sea captain and scientific explorer attempting to reach the north pole who encounters Victor Frankenstein and records

710-515: A letter (see epistle ) . This type of fiction is also sometimes known by the German term Briefroman or more generally as epistolary fiction . The epistolary form can be seen as adding greater realism to a story, due to the text existing diegetically within the lives of the characters. It is in particular able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an omniscient narrator . An important strategic device in

781-438: A male-dominated society. Women were even discouraged from writing because it would ultimately create an identity and become a form of defiance. Gilman realized that writing became one of the only forms of expression for women at a time when they had very few rights. After the birth of her first daughter, Gilman suffered postnatal depression and was treated by Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell , the leading expert on women's mental health at

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852-454: A now-discredited catchall term referring to most mental health diseases identified in women and erroneously believed to stem from a malfunctioning uterus (from the Greek hystera , "womb"). At the time, the medical understanding was that women who spent time in serious intellectual pursuits (such as university education) over-stimulated their brains, which in turn led to states of hysteria. Many of

923-685: A pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikely of circumstances. Oliver Goldsmith used the form to satirical effect in The Citizen of the World , subtitled "Letters from a Chinese Philosopher Residing in London to his Friends in the East" (1760–61). So did the diarist Fanny Burney in a successful comic first novel, Evelina (1788). The epistolary novel slowly became less popular after 18th century. Although Jane Austen tried

994-484: A polyphonic one. The epistolary novel form has continued to be used after the eighteenth century. Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi ( née Putnam ; August 31, 1842 – June 10, 1906) was an English-American physician , teacher, scientist, writer, and suffragist . She was the first woman admitted to study medicine at the University of Paris and the first woman to graduate from

1065-726: A professor in the new Women's Medical College of the New York Infirmary and Mount Sinai Hospital . Jacobi became the second woman member of the Medical Society of the County of New York, and was admitted to the American Medical Association . In 1872, she helped to found the Women's Medical Association of New York City , and served as its president from 1874 to 1903. She campaigned consistently for

1136-601: A public school for girls on 12th Street in Manhattan , from which she graduated in 1859. After graduating, she studied Greek , science, and medicine privately with Elizabeth Blackwell and others. As a teenager, Jacobi published short stories in The Atlantic Monthly from the age of fifteen, and later in the New York Evening Post . Although George Putnam believed a career in medicine

1207-704: A real detective for whom Doyle only acted as a literary agent . Epistolary novels can be categorized based on the number of people whose letters are included. This gives three types of epistolary novels: monophonic (giving the letters of only one character, like Letters of a Portuguese Nun and The Sorrows of Young Werther ), dialogic (giving the letters of two characters, like Mme Marie Jeanne Riccoboni 's Letters of Fanni Butler (1757), and polyphonic (with three or more letter-writing characters, such as in Bram Stoker's Dracula ). A crucial element in polyphonic epistolary novels like Clarissa and Dangerous Liaisons

1278-474: A standard text in many curricula. Feminists have made a significant contribution to the study of literature, according to Lanser, but she also remarks that if "we acknowledge the participation of women writers and readers in dominant patterns of thought and social practice then perhaps our own patterns must also be deconstructed if we are to recover meanings still hidden or overlooked." Martha J. Cutter points out that many of Charlotte Perkins Gilman's works address

1349-431: A woman is creeping on all fours behind the pattern. Believing she must free the woman in the wallpaper, she begins to strip the remaining paper off the wall. When her husband arrives home, the narrator refuses to unlock her door. When he returns with the key, he finds her creeping around the room, rubbing against the wallpaper, and exclaiming, "I've got out at last... in spite of you." He faints, but she continues to circle

1420-456: Is an allegory for Gilman's hatred of the emerging yellow journalism . Having created The Forerunner in November 1909, Gilman made it clear she wished the press to be more insightful and not rely upon exaggerated stories and flashy headlines. Gilman was often scandalized in the media and resented the sensationalism of the media. The relationship between the narrator and the wallpaper within

1491-403: Is completely forced to succumb to everything in which her doctor and in this particular story, her husband, says. The male voice is the one which forces control on the female and decides how she is allowed to perceive and speak about the world around her. "The Yellow Wallpaper" is sometimes cited as an example of Gothic literature for its themes of madness and powerlessness. Alan Ryan introduced

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1562-428: Is interpreted as a victory over her husband at the expense of her sanity. Susan S. Lanser, a professor at Brandeis University , praises contemporary feminism and its role in changing the study and the interpretation of literature. "The Yellow Wallpaper" was one of many stories that lost authority in the literary world because of an ideology that determined the works' content to be disturbing or offensive. Critics such as

1633-523: Is nothing in the nature of menstruation to imply the necessity, or even desirability, of rest." Jacobi wrote over 120 medical articles and nine books, although she stopped writing fiction in 1871. In 1891 she contributed a paper on the history of women physicians in the United States, titled "Woman in Medicine," to the volume Women's Work in America (1891, edited by Annie Nathan Meyer ), that included

1704-445: Is silenced. Paula Treichler explains: "In this story diagnosis 'is powerful and public.   ... It is a male voice that   ... imposes controls on the female narrator and dictates how she is to perceive and talk about the world.' Diagnosis covertly functions to empower the male physician's voice and disempower the female patient's." The narrator in "The Yellow Wallpaper" is not allowed to participate in her treatment or diagnosis and

1775-441: Is the dramatic device of 'discrepant awareness': the simultaneous but separate correspondences of the heroines and the villains creating dramatic tension. They can also be classified according to their type and quantity of use of non-letter documents, though this has obvious correlations with the number of voices – for example, newspaper clippings are unlikely to feature heavily in a monophonic epistolary and considerably more likely in

1846-415: Is to undermine her desires. Often women were prescribed bed rest as a form of treatment, which was meant to "tame" them and keep them imprisoned. Treatments such as this were a way of ridding women of rebelliousness and forcing them to conform to expected social roles. In her works, Gilman highlights that the harm caused by these types of treatments for women, i.e., "the rest cure", has to do with how her voice

1917-522: The Franco-Prussian War . In Scribner's Monthly of August 1871, she published an account of the new French political leadership that came to power following the war. After five years of studying in Paris, Jacobi returned to the United States in the fall of 1871. Moving back to New York City, Jacobi established her own private medical practice. Jacobi also participated in research and became

1988-701: The New England Hospital for Women and Children . She also served in the American Civil War as a medical aide. During a short internship in which she studied clinical medicine at the New England Hospital for Women and Children, Jacobi decided to further her study of medicine and apply to École de Médecine of the University of Paris . After much negotiation and thanks to the help of the psychiatrist Benjamin Ball , in 1868 she

2059-528: The Women's Medical Association of New York City , and was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1993. Jacobi was born Mary Corinna Putnam on August 31, 1842 in London , England. She was the daughter of an American father, George Palmer Putnam and British mother, Victorine Haven Putnam, originally from New York City . She was the oldest of eleven children. At the time of Jacobi's birth,

2130-548: The "rest cure" so that his treatments would be more widely accessible. This story has been interpreted by feminist critics as a condemnation of the male control of the 19th-century medical profession. Throughout the short story, the narrator offers many suggestions to help her get better, such as exercising, working, or socializing with the outside world. Her ideas are dismissed immediately while using language that stereotypes her as irrational and, therefore, unqualified to offer ideas about her condition. This interpretation draws on

2201-686: The Boylston Prize. Jacobi's essay was a response to Dr. Edward H. Clarke 's earlier publication, Sex in Education; or, A Fair Chance for the Girls (1875), a book claiming that any physical or mental exertion during menstruation could lead to women becoming infertile . Jacobi did not believe this was the case, and to test the idea she collected extensive physiological data on women throughout their menstrual cycle, including muscle strength tests before and after menstruation. She concluded that "there

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2272-553: The admission of women to leading medical schools , including Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . Her teaching at the Medical College tended to exceed what her students were prepared for and led her to resign in 1888. In 1873, she married Abraham Jacobi , a New York physician and researcher, nowadays often referred to as the "father of American pediatrics ." They had three children, two daughters, and one son. The couple's first daughter died at birth and their only son died at

2343-402: The age of seven. Abraham and Mary had only one child who survived to adulthood, their daughter Marjorie Jacobi McAneny. Jacobi educated her daughter herself according to her own educational theories. Jacobi received Harvard University 's Boylston Prize in 1876 for an original essay, later published as a book, The Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation . She was the first woman to win

2414-433: The birth of their baby. They spend the summer at a colonial mansion, where the narrator is largely confined to an upstairs nursery. The story makes striking use of an unreliable narrator in order to gradually reveal the degree to which her husband has "imprisoned" her due to her physical and mental condition. She describes torn wallpaper, barred windows, metal rings in the walls, a floor "scratched and gouged and splintered",

2485-409: The concept of the " domestic sphere " that women were held in during this period. Many feminist critics focus on the degree of triumph at the end of the story. Although some claim the narrator slipped into insanity, others see the ending as a woman's assertion of agency in a marriage in which she felt trapped. The emphasis on reading and writing as gendered practices also illustrated the importance of

2556-636: The defeat of the women's suffrage amendment to the New York State Constitution , Jacobi was one of six prominent suffragists who founded the League for Political Education . While Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) viewed medicine as a means for social and moral reform, the younger Jacobi focused on curing disease. Blackwell believed that women would succeed in medicine because of their humane feminine values, but Jacobi thought women's contribution to all medical specialties should be considered equivalent to men's. After being diagnosed with

2627-426: The diseases diagnosed in women were considered to be a matter of a lack of self-control or self-rule. Medical practitioners argued that a physician must "assume a tone of authority" and that a "cured" woman is defined by being "subdued, docile, silent, and above all subject to the will and voice of the physician". A hysterical woman craves power. To be treated for her hysteria, she must submit to her physician, whose role

2698-429: The dying man's narrative and confessions. Published in 1848, Anne Brontë 's novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is framed as a retrospective letter from one of the main heroes to his friend and brother-in-law with the diary of the eponymous tenant inside it. In the late 19th century, Bram Stoker released one of the most widely recognized and successful novels in the epistolary form to date, Dracula . Printed in 1897,

2769-471: The editor of the Atlantic Monthly rejected the short story because "[he] could not forgive [himself] if [he] made others as miserable as [he] made [himself]". Lanser argues that the same argument of devastation and misery can be said about the work of Edgar Allan Poe . "The Yellow Wallpaper" provided feminists the tools to interpret literature in different ways. Lanser argues that the short story

2840-404: The epistolary form to great dramatic effect, because the sequence of events was not always related directly or explicitly. In Germany, there was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's The Sorrows of Young Werther ( Die Leiden des jungen Werther ) (1774) and Friedrich Hölderlin 's Hyperion . The first Canadian novel, The History of Emily Montague (1769) by Frances Brooke , and twenty years later

2911-614: The epistolary in juvenile writings and her novella Lady Susan (1794), she abandoned this structure for her later work. It is thought that her lost novel First Impressions , which was redrafted to become Pride and Prejudice , may have been epistolary: Pride and Prejudice contains an unusual number of letters quoted in full and some play a critical role in the plot. The epistolary form nonetheless saw continued use, surviving in exceptions or in fragments in nineteenth-century novels. In Honoré de Balzac 's novel Letters of Two Brides , two women who became friends during their education at

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2982-464: The epistolary novel for creating the impression of authenticity of the letters is the fictional editor. There are two theories on the genesis of the epistolary novel: The first claims that the genre is originated from novels with inserted letters, in which the portion containing the third-person narrative in between the letters was gradually reduced. The other theory claims that the epistolary novel arose from miscellanies of letters and poetry: some of

3053-457: The family lived in London because her father George was establishing a branch office for his New York City publishing company, Wiley & Putnam . In 1848, at the age of six, Jacobi moved with her family from London to New York, where she spent the rest of her childhood and adolescence. Mary was educated at home by her mother before attending a private school in Yonkers . Later, she attended

3124-535: The feminist themes which view the wallpaper as something along the lines of "...   the 'pattern' which underlies sexual inequality, the external manifestation of neurasthenia , the narrator's unconscious, the narrator's situation within patriarchy", Treichler instead explains that the wallpaper can be a symbol to represent discourse and the fact that the narrator is alienated from the world in which she previously could somewhat express herself. Treichler illustrates that through this discussion of language and writing, in

3195-409: The first American novel, The Power of Sympathy (1789) by William Hill Brown , were both written in epistolary form. Starting in the 18th century, the epistolary form was subject to much ridicule, resulting in a number of savage burlesques . The most notable example of these was Henry Fielding 's Shamela (1741), written as a parody of Pamela . In it, the female narrator can be found wielding

3266-430: The hideously papered room where a madwoman was once confined". Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz wrote that "the story was a cri de coeur against Gilman's first husband, artist Charles Walter Stetson and the traditional marriage he had demanded." Gilman attempted to deflect blame to protect her daughter Katharine and Stetson's second wife Grace Ellery Channing , who was also Gilman's close friend and cousin. Horowitz consults

3337-413: The individual characters, and the central voice of the author and moral evaluation disappeared (at least in the first volume; further volumes introduced a narrator). The author furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with complex scenarios such as letters that fall into the wrong hands, faked letters, or letters withheld by protagonists. The epistolary novel as a genre became popular in the 18th century in

3408-473: The letters were tied together into a (mostly amorous) plot. There is evidence to support both claims. The first truly epistolary novel, the Spanish "Prison of Love" ( Cárcel de amor ) ( c.  1485 ) by Diego de San Pedro , belongs to a tradition of novels in which a large number of inserted letters already dominated the narrative. Other well-known examples of early epistolary novels are closely related to

3479-459: The letters, most commonly diary entries and newspaper clippings, and sometimes considered to include novels composed of documents even if they do not include letters at all. More recently, epistolaries may include electronic documents such as recordings and radio, blog posts, and e-mails . The word epistolary is derived from Latin from the Greek word epistolē ( ἐπιστολή ), meaning

3550-425: The love of women. Perhaps first work to fully utilize the potential of an epistolary novel was Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister . This work was published anonymously in three volumes (1684, 1685, and 1687), and has been attributed to Aphra Behn though its authorship remains disputed in the 21st century. The novel shows the genre's results of changing perspectives: individual points were presented by

3621-425: The medical field. Gilman sent a copy to Mitchell but never received a response. (Gilman was ultimately proven right in her disdain for the "rest cure" when she sought a second opinion from Mary Putnam Jacobi , one of the first female doctors and a strong opponent of this theory, who prescribed a regimen of physical and mental activity that proved a much more successful treatment.) She added that "The Yellow Wallpaper"

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3692-433: The narrator as a reader, when one comes into contact with a confusing and complicated text, one tries to find a single meaning. "How we were taught to read," as Lanser puts it, is why a reader cannot fully comprehend the text. The patriarchal ideology had kept many scholars from being able to interpret and appreciate stories such as "The Yellow Wallpaper". With the growth of feminist criticism, "The Yellow Wallpaper" has become

3763-428: The narrator's insanity as a way to protest the professional and societal oppression against women. While under the impression that husbands and male doctors were acting with their best interests in mind, women were depicted as mentally fragile. Women’s rights advocates of the era believed that the "outbreak" of this mental instability was the manifestation of their setbacks regarding the roles they were allowed to play in

3834-469: The novel is compiled entirely of letters, diary entries, newspaper clippings, telegrams, doctor's notes, ship's logs, and the like. The biographic stylings of the Sherlock Holmes adventures by Arthur Conan Doyle have lead to the tradition of a " Sherlockian game " among the Sherlock Holmes fandom , where fans discuss the supposed writings of Dr. Watson as though they were a genuine account of

3905-440: The patterns and tries to organize them geometrically, but she is further confused. The wallpaper changes colors when it reflects light and emits a distinct odor that the protagonist cannot recognize (p. 25). At night the narrator can see a woman behind bars within the complex design of the wallpaper. Lanser argues that the unnamed woman was able to find "a space of text on which she can locate whatever self-projection". Just like

3976-426: The right to speak". In making this claim, it suggests that the new struggle found within the text is between two forms of writing; one rather old and traditional, and the other new and exciting. This is supported by the fact that John, the narrator's husband, does not like his wife to write anything, which is why her journal containing the story is kept a secret and thus is known only by the narrator and reader. A look at

4047-491: The room, creeping over his inert body each time she passes it, believing herself to have become the woman trapped behind the yellow wallpaper. Gilman used her writing to explore the role of women in America around 1900. She expounded upon many issues, such as the lack of a life outside the home and the oppressive forces of a patriarchal society . Through her work, Gilman paved the way for writers such as Alice Walker and Sylvia Plath . In "The Yellow Wallpaper," she portrays

4118-423: The sources of Charlotte's private life, including her daily journals, drafts of poems and essays, and intimate letters, and compares them to the diary accounts of her first husband. She also mines Charlotte's diaries for notes on her reading. She shows how specific poetry, fiction, and popular science shaped her consciousness and understanding of sex and gender, health and illness, emotion and intellect. Horowitz makes

4189-470: The story by writing: "quite apart from its origins [it] is one of the finest, and strongest, tales of horror ever written. It may be a ghost story . Worse yet, it may not." Pioneering horror author H. P. Lovecraft writes in his essay Supernatural Horror in Literature (1927) that "'The Yellow Wall Paper' rises to a classic level in subtly delineating the madness which crawls over a woman dwelling in

4260-501: The story parallels Gilman's relationship with the press. The protagonist describes the wallpaper as having "sprawling flamboyant patterns committing every artistic sin". Edelstein argues that given Gilman’s distaste for the Yellow Press, this can also be seen as a description of tabloid newspapers of the day. Paula A. Treichler focuses on the relationship portrayed in the short story between women and writing. Rather than write about

4331-446: The story, Charlotte Perkins Gilman is defying the "...   sentence that the structure of patriarchal language imposes". While Treichler accepts the legitimacy of strictly feminist claims, she writes that a closer look at the text suggests that the wallpaper could be interpreted as women's language and discourse. The woman found in the wallpaper could be the "...   representation of women that becomes possible only after women obtain

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4402-446: The text shows that as the relationship between the narrator and the wallpaper grows stronger, so too does her language in her journal as she begins to increasingly write of her frustration and desperation. Epistolary novel An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of letters between the fictional characters of a narrative. The term is often extended to cover novels that intersperse documents of other kinds with

4473-464: The time. He suggested a strict 'rest cure' regimen involving much of bed rest and a blanket ban on working, including reading, writing, and painting. After three months and almost desperate, Gilman decided to contravene her diagnosis, along with the treatment methods, and started to work again. Aware of how close she had come to a complete mental breakdown, the author wrote ”The Yellow Wallpaper” with additions and exaggerations to illustrate her criticism of

4544-453: The tradition of letter-books and miscellanies of letters. Within the successive editions of Edmé Boursault 's Letters of Respect, Gratitude and Love ( Lettres de respect, d'obligation et d'amour ) (1669), a group of letters written to a girl named Babet were expanded and became more and more distinct from the other letters, until it formed a small epistolary novel entitled Letters to Babet ( Lettres à Babet ). The immensely famous Letters of

4615-424: The wallpaper. If the narrator were allowed neither to write in her journal nor to read, she would begin to "read" the wallpaper until she found the escape she was looking for. Through seeing the women in the wallpaper, the narrator realizes that she could not live her life locked up behind bars. At the end of the story, as her husband lies on the floor unconscious, she crawls over him, symbolically rising over him. This

4686-408: The way it leaves yellow smears on the skin and clothing of anyone who touches it. She describes how the longer one stays in the bedroom, the more the wallpaper appears to mutate, especially in the moonlight. With no stimulus other than the wallpaper, the pattern and designs become increasingly intriguing to the narrator. She soon begins to see a figure in the design. Eventually, she comes to believe that

4757-496: The works of such authors as Samuel Richardson , with his immensely successful novels Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1749). John Cleland 's early erotic novel Fanny Hill (1748) is written as a series of letters from the titular character to an unnamed recipient. In France, there was Lettres persanes (1721) by Montesquieu , followed by Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (1761) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau , and Choderlos de Laclos ' Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782), which used

4828-429: Was "not intended to drive people crazy, but to save people from being driven crazy, and it worked". Gilman claimed that many years later, she learned that Mitchell had changed his treatment methods. However, literary historian Julie Bates Dock has discredited this. Mitchell continued his methods, and as late as 1908 – 16 years after "The Yellow Wallpaper" was published – was interested in creating entire hospitals devoted to

4899-454: Was a "particularly congenial medium for such a re-vision   ... because the narrator herself engages in a form of feminist interpretation when she tries to read the paper on her wall". The narrator in the story is trying to find a single meaning in the wallpaper. At first, she focuses on the contradictory style of the wallpaper: it is "flamboyant" while also "dull", "pronounced," yet "lame," and "uncertain" (p. 13). She takes into account

4970-639: Was a "repulsive pursuit," he reluctantly agreed to financially support his daughter's decision to pursue medicine, an ambition she had held since childhood. In 1863, Jacobi graduated from the New York College of Pharmacy , which made her the first woman to graduate from an American school of pharmacy. In 1864, she earned her Doctor of Medicine from the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania . For several months, she practiced clinical medicine with Marie Zakrewska and Lucy Sewall at

5041-470: Was admitted as the first woman student at École de Médecine, although as a woman she was required to enter lectures through a separate door and sit at the front near the professor. In July 1871, Jacobi graduated with honors and was the second woman to receive a degree from École de Médecine of the University of Paris. Jacobi also received a bronze medal for her thesis . Her studies in Paris coincided with

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