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38-533: The end of pagan worship at the Parthenon cannot be dated precisely. The decree of Theodosius II (438) concerning the conversion of pagan temples and the edict of Justinian (529) closing the classical schools of philosophy set the context from which it can be inferred that paganism ceased in the 5th century CE. The last dedication in the Parthenon by a polytheist is dated to 375, and the last Panathenaic Games were held in 391 or 395. F.W. Deichmann has shown that

76-503: A constitution which conferred executive powers upon three consuls, elected for a period of ten years. In reality, the first consul, Bonaparte, dominated his two colleagues and held supreme power, soon making himself consul for life (1802) and eventually, in 1804, emperor . The office was held by: The short-lived Bolognese Republic , proclaimed in 1796 as a French client republic in the Central Italian city of Bologna , had

114-673: A Provisional Government: Rome was occupied by France (11 July – 28 September 1799) and again by Naples (30 September 1799 – 23 June 1800), bringing an end to the Roman Republic. Among the many petty local republics that were formed during the first year of the Greek Revolution , prior to the creation of a unified Provisional Government at the First National Assembly at Epidaurus , were: Note: in Greek ,

152-589: A government consisting of nine consuls and its head of state was the Presidente del Magistrato , i.e., chief magistrate , a presiding office held for four months by one of the consuls. Bologna already had consuls at some parts of its Medieval history. The French-sponsored Roman Republic (15 February 1798 – 23 June 1800) was headed by multiple consuls: Consular rule was interrupted by the Neapolitan occupation (27 November – 12 December 1798), which installed

190-656: A government to reside in a foreign country and represent its interests there." The Devil's Dictionary defines Consul as "in American politics, a person who having failed to secure an office from the people is given one by the Administration on condition that he leave the country". In most governments, the consul is the head of the consular section of an embassy, and is responsible for all consular services such as immigrant and non-immigrant visas , passports , and citizen services for expatriates living or traveling in

228-517: A reliance on western provincial sources through the late 4th century and on central, eastern archives thereafter." After 6 years, an initial version was finished in 435 but was not published. Instead, it was improved upon and expanded and finally finished in 438 and taken to the Senate in Rome and Constantinople. Matthews believes that the two attempts are not the result of a failed first attempt; however,

266-513: A single, simplified, and supersedent code, Theodosius II also attempted to solidify Christianity as the Empire's official religion after it had been decriminalised under Galerius ' rule and promoted under Constantine's. In his City of God , St. Augustine praised Theodosius the Great , Theodosius II's grandfather, who shared his faith and devotion, as "a Christian ruler whose piety was expressed by

304-526: Is a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Emperor Theodosius II and his co-emperor Valentinian III on 26 March 429 and the compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439. The original text of the codex is also found in

342-701: Is reflected in the modern usage of the word (see Consul (representative) ). In addition to the Genoese Republic, the Republic of Pisa also took the form of "Consul" in the early stages of its government. The Consulate of the Republic of Pisa was the major government institution present in Pisa from 1087 to 1189. Despite losing space within the government since 1190 in favor of the Podestà , for some periods of

380-604: The Breviary of Alaric (also called Lex Romana Visigothorum ), promulgated on 2 February 506. On 26 March 429, Emperor Theodosius II announced to the Senate of Constantinople his intentions to form a committee to codify all of the laws ( leges , singular lex ) from the reign of Constantine up to Theodosius II and Valentinian III. The laws in the code span from 312 to 438, so by 438 the "volume of imperial law had become unmanageable". Twenty-two scholars, working in two teams, worked for nine years starting in 429 to assemble what

418-491: The Codex Hermogenianus , a limited collection of rescripts from c. 295, was published. The Sirmondian Constitutions may also represent a small-scale collection of imperial laws. However, Theodosius desired to create a more comprehensive code that would provide greater insight into law during the later empire (321–429). Peter Stein states, "Theodosius was perturbed at the low state of legal skill in his empire of

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456-648: The Roman Empire . The title was used in other European city-states through antiquity and the Middle Ages, in particular in the Republics of Genoa and Pisa , then revived in modern states , notably in the First French Republic . The related adjective is consular , from the Latin consularis . This usage contrasts with modern terminology, where a consul is a type of diplomat . A consul held

494-494: The 13th century some citizens were again elected as consuls. Throughout most of southern France , a consul ( French : consul or consule ) was an office equivalent to the échevins  [ fr ] of the north and roughly similar with English aldermen . The most prominent were those of Bordeaux and Toulouse , which came to be known as jurats and capitouls , respectively. The capitouls of Toulouse were granted transmittable nobility. In many other smaller towns

532-464: The Christian period, 60 of which are datable, that has provided valuable information on Christian worship of the time. In the process of conversion, significant damage was done to the sculpture of the classical temple. This included cutting away parts of the frieze to make clerestory windows into the nave and to create the apse. Also, it is evident that there was a concerted effort to deface many of

570-549: The Codex Theodosianus is: The Theodosian Code was translated into English, with annotations, in 1952 by Clyde Pharr , Theresa Sherrer Davidson , and others. This translation was very favorably received by scholars. Consul Consul (abbrev. cos. ; Latin plural consules ) was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic , and subsequently also an important title under

608-551: The Codex, books 6–16, also drew largely from two texts. Books 6–8 of the Codex were preserved in the text of a document known as Parsinus 9643. The document circulated in early medieval French libraries, as well as the other formative document for the latter part of the code, a document held in the Vatican (Vat. Reg. 886), also known as "V". Scholars consider this section to have been transmitted completely. The reference edition of

646-471: The East." He started a school of law at Constantinople. In 429, he assigned a commission to collect all imperial constitutions since the time of Constantine. While gathering the vast amount of material, editors often had multiple copies of the same law. In addition to this, the source material the editors were drawing upon changed over time. Clifford Ando notes that according to Matthews, the editors "displayed

684-547: The Novellae), in that it was largely based not on existing juristic writings and collections of texts, but on primary sources that had never before been brought together." Justinian's Code, published about 100 years later, comprised both ius , "law as an interpretive discipline", and leges , "the primary legislation upon which the interpretation was based". While the first part, or codex, of Justinian's Corpus Civilis Juris contained 12 books of constitutions , or imperial laws,

722-408: The conversion to a church must have occurred before 578–582, due to the presence of Christian tombs with datable numismatic evidence on the south side of the Parthenon. The building suffered a devastating fire in the late Roman period such that the original roof was destroyed; this was then repaired in such a way that only the naos was reroofed with the peripteral colonnade left open to the sky. This

760-490: The delays were caused by such problems as verifying the accuracy of the text and improving the legal coherence of the work." The tone of the work reflected the rhetorical training that the drafters had received, and Averil Cameron has described it as "verbose, moralizing and pretentious". The code was written in Latin and referred explicitly to the two capitals of Constantinople ( Constantinopolitana ) and Rome ( Roma ). It

798-527: The digest found later in Justinian's Code . But the task proved too great, and in 435, it was decided to concentrate solely on the laws from Constantine to the time of writing. This decision defined the most significant difference between the Theodosian Code and Justinian's later Corpus Juris Civilis . Matthews observes, "The Theodosian Code does, however, differ from the work of Justinian (except

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836-401: The existing one making three external entrances in total. A screened off baptistry was also made in the narthex. The wall that divided the opisthodomos from the naos was pierced to make further interior doorways. The nave led to a semicircular apse formed from the walled-off east pronaos to the temple. In addition to the architectural changes there are some 232 graffiti on the Parthenon from

874-631: The figures. The metopes particularly suffered, though why some were vandalized and others left has been the cause of speculation. Rodenwalt argued that those spared (N32 for example) were done so because an interpretatio christiana was applied where the mythological scenes were reinterpreted. Subsequent scholarship has questioned Rodenwalt's conclusions. When and by whom the vandalism was done nevertheless remains an open problem. 37°58′17″N 23°43′35″E  /  37.9714°N 23.7263°E  / 37.9714; 23.7263 Codex Theodosianus The Codex Theodosianus ("Theodosian Code")

912-603: The first consul was the equivalent of a mayor today, assisted by a variable number of secondary consuls and jurats. His main task was to levy and collect tax. The Dukes of Gaeta often used also the title of "consul" in its Greek form " Hypatos " (see List of Hypati and Dukes of Gaeta ). After Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup against the Directory government in November 1799, the French Republic adopted

950-423: The highest elected political office of the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of the cursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired). Consuls were elected to office and held power for one year. There were always two consuls in power at any time. It was not uncommon for an organization under Roman private law to copy

988-637: The importance of Theodosius' code when he said, "the Theodosian Code was the first occasion since the Twelve Tables on which a Roman government had attempted by public authority to collect and publish its leges ." The code covers political, socioeconomic, cultural, and religious subjects of the 4th and 5th centuries in the Roman Empire. A collection of imperial enactments called the Codex Gregorianus had been written in c. 291–4 and

1026-491: The laws he had issued in favor of the Catholic Church ". The Codex Theodosianus is, for example, explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease during Holy Week , and the doors of all courts of law be closed during those 15 days (1. ii. tit. viii.). It also instituted laws punishing homosexuality , which represented a departure from policy under the period of the Roman Republic, under which homosexuality

1064-478: The manuscript support available for books 6–16. The first five books of the surviving Codex draw largely from two other manuscripts. The Turin manuscript, or "T," consists of 43 largely discontinuous folios. The second manuscript is the Breviary of Alaric , and a good part of the Breviarium that is included in book 1 contains the original text of the respective part of the original codex. The latter part of

1102-552: The republic, 14 March 1841 – 13 March 1844 (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled "first consul", "second consul"): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 – d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforementioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) Thereafter all republican rulers were styled "president". In modern terminology, a consul is a type of diplomat . The American Heritage Dictionary defines consul as "an official appointed by

1140-721: The second and third parts, the digest and the Institutiones , contained the ius of Classical Roman jurists and the Institutes of Gaius . While the Theodosian Code may seem to lack a personal facet due to the absence of judicial reviews, upon further review, the legal code gives insight into Theodosius' motives behind the codification. Lenski quotes Matthews as noting that the "imperial constitutions represented not only prescriptive legal formulas but also descriptive pronouncements of an emperor's moral and ideological principles". Apart from clearing up confusion and creating

1178-417: The second attempt shows "reiteration and refinement of the original goals at a new stage in the editorial process". Others have put forth alternate theories to explain the lengthy editorial process and two different commissions. Boudewijn Sirks believes that "the code was compiled from imperial copy books found at Constantinople, Rome, or Ravenna, supplemented by material at a few private collections, and that

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1216-472: The term for "consul" is "hypatos" (ὕπατος), which translates as "supreme one", and hence does not necessarily imply a joint office. In between a series of juntas and various other short-lived regimes, the young republic was governed by "consuls of the republic", with two consuls alternating in power every 4 months: After a few presidents of the Provisional Junta , there were again consuls of

1254-698: The terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents. The founding statute, or contract, of such an organisation was called lex , 'law'. The people elected each year were patricians , members of the upper class. While many cities, including the Gallic states and the Carthaginian Republic , had a double-headed chief magistracy, another title was often used, such as the Punic sufet , Duumvir , or native styles like Meddix . The city-state of Genoa , unlike ancient Rome, bestowed

1292-414: The title of consul on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. Among these were Genoese officials stationed in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authorities. Great Britain reciprocated by appointing consuls to Genoa from 1722. This institution, with its name, was later emulated by other powers and

1330-635: Was also concerned with the imposition of orthodoxy – the Arian controversy was ongoing – within the Christian religion and contains 65 decrees directed at heretics. Initially, Theodosius attempted to commission leges generales beginning with Constantine as a supplement for the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus . He intended to supplement the legal codes with the opinions and writings of ancient Roman jurists, much like

1368-419: Was the structure that was converted into a church. The conversion took the form of altering the naos into the nave of a basilica and the opisthodomos into a narthex . This space was entered from the west, where the intercolumnar spaces of the pronaos had been walled off with a low wall forming a single doorway. Two doors were created in the opisthodomos, on the north and south walls of the naos, along with

1406-486: Was to become the Theodosian Code . The chief overseer of the work was Antiochus Chuzon , a lawyer and a prefect and consul from Antioch. Their product was a collection of 16 books containing more than 2,500 constitutions issued between 313 and 437, while, at the same time, omitting obsolete provisions and superfluous phrases, and making additions, emendations, and alterations. John F. Matthews illustrated

1444-456: Was tolerated and perhaps mocked but was not illegal. The first laws granting tax exemption to the church appear in the Codex and are credited to Constantine and his son Constantius II . These laws specify land owned by clergy , their family members, and churches were exempt from compulsory service and tax payments with the exception of land personally owned by the clerics. Books 1-5 lack

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