This is a synopsis of organisations formed by Indians in Fiji . When they became free from the bondage of indenture and were able to organise themselves, they founded numerous organizations to seek social and political justice. These organisations promoted the teaching of Indian languages and religious practices and also to help others in time of need. Some of the successful organisations are listed below in the order in which they were established. Some, such as the National Federation Party , are no longer exclusively Indian, but are still predominantly so.
176-542: The British Indian Association was established in 1911, following a severe hurricane that had brought much hardship to the Fiji Indians in the Central Division . It was formed by a group that included J.P. Maharaj (a Suva Storekeeper), Totaram Sanadhya (a pundit and social worker from Rewa), Ram Singh (a Suva printer) and Ram Rup. The meeting was chaired by Shriyut Rupram and discussed grievances such as
352-478: A Fiji-Indian division. The use of the terms 'Fiji-Indian' or 'Fijian-Indian' are misnomers. This is because the meaning of the words 'Indian' and 'India' have changed over time, including during the British colonial rule and before it. Historically, the subcontinent of South Asia was informally referred to as "India" by foreign travelers and cartographers, the people living there were called 'Indians'. However, after
528-401: A bigger gap between them and the indigenous Fijians. Former Prime Minister Chaudhry has expressed alarm at the high rate of emigration of educated Indo-Fijians. "If the trend continues, Fiji will be left with a large pool of poorly educated, unskilled work force with disastrous consequences on our social and economic infrastructure and levels of investment," he said on 19 June 2005. He blamed
704-518: A ceremonial county, or be a district tier within a shire county , be a royal or metropolitan borough , have borough or city status , or be a unitary authority . At the community level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with their own councils ; in Greater London only one such parish, Queen's Park , exists as of 2014 after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007. From 1994 until
880-764: A commercial school, a religious training centre, a youth development centre and has provided the facilities and resources for the establishment of the University of Fiji . The Indian Cane Growers Association was formed on 28 September 1919 and was based in Ba district , one of the cane growing districts in the Western Division of Fiji . It was led by a former overseer of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company and included some well-to-do Indian cane farmers from Ba. The Association proposed
1056-667: A communal franchise instead, with different ethnic groups voting on separate electoral rolls. At a specially convened conference in London in April 1970, a compromise was worked out, under which parliamentary seats would be allocated by ethnicity, with ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians represented equally. In the House of Representatives , each ethnic group was allocated 22 seats, with 12 representing Communal constituencies (elected by voters registered as members of their particular ethnic group) and
1232-716: A foreign country. The telegram had the desired result, as under pressure from the United Nations the Colonial Secretary called a Constitutional Conference for 26 July 1965. Ayodhya The Congress was bitterly opposed to A. D. Patel and the Federation Party . In October 1965, Ayodhya Prasad met Ratu Kamisese Mara and suggested the establishment of a new political party made up of the Fijian Association and National Congress of Fiji. In
1408-547: A former member of parliament, K. B. Singh , due to personal differences with the president of the Rewa Planters Union . There was widespread opposition to this until Vishnu Deo took over its leadership. The Southern Division Kisan Sangh took an active role in the negotiations for the 1950 cane contract. With the closure of the Nausori sugar mill in 1959, the union ceased to exist. Vishal Sangh (Great Union)
1584-410: A further 10 representing National constituencies (distributed by ethnicity but elected by universal suffrage . A further 8 seats were reserved for ethnic minorities , 3 from "communal" and 5 from "national" constituencies. In 1987, shortly after a coalition government was formed that represented both communities, two military coups were staged by low-ranking Fijian officers that aimed at sidelining
1760-512: A geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since the Middle Ages ; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff ; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally. Some counties, such as Herefordshire , are only divided further into civil parishes. The royal county of Berkshire and
1936-480: A multi-racial party in the 1980s, it was supported mostly by Indo-Fijians, but has seen no representation in parliament since the coup of 2006. The Church plays a major role in Fiji politics. Often some leaders appeal to Fijians addressing them as "Christians", even though Hindus are 33% of the population in Fiji, compared with 52% Christians. The 2000 Fijian coup d'état that removed the elected PM Mahendra Chaudhry ,
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#17328023569102112-832: A negative response. In 1870, a direct request by a planter to the Colonial Government of India was also turned down and in 1872, an official request by the Cakobau Government was informed that British rule in Fiji was a pre-condition for Indian emigration to Fiji. The early ancestors of Indo-Fijians came from different regions of South Asia, most coming from rural villages in Northern and Southern India. In January 1879, thirty-one South Asians, who had originally been indentured labourers in Réunion , were brought from New Caledonia to Fiji under contract to work on
2288-514: A plantation in Taveuni . These labourers demonstrated knowledge of the terms of the indenture agreement and were aware of their rights and refused to do the heavy work assigned to them, their contract was terminated by mutual agreement between the labourers and their employers. In 1881, thirty-eight more Indians arrived from New Caledonia and again most of them left but some stayed taking Indian wives or island women. The colonial authorities promoted
2464-597: A policy which warranted an Indian Platoon within the Fiji Defence Force consisting entirely of enlisted-ranked Indians. Governor Fletcher encouraged Indo-Fijians to regard Fiji as their permanent home. One could say this was Fletcher's insurance policy against an anticipated anti-European revolt at the hands of the Native population, which subsequently took place in 1959. While the Fiji Indian troops had
2640-609: A profound and permanent effect on the English language. Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II , adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine . They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I , Edward I , Edward III and Henry V . The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including
2816-567: A result, and the native male population was scarce at one stage, but by 2000 their share of the population had declined to 43.7%, because of a higher ethnic-Fijian birthrate and particularly because of the greater tendency of Indo-Fijians to emigrate. Emigration accelerated following the coups of 1987 (which removed an Indo-Fijian-supported government from power and, for a time, ushered in a constitution that discriminated against them in numerous ways) and of 2000 (which removed an Indo-Fijian Prime Minister from office). Political differences between
2992-469: A riot which was forcibly quelled on 12 February; Manilal, widely blamed for the unrest, was deported. Another strike, from January to July in 1921, led by Sadhu (priest) Vashist Muni , demanded higher rates of pay for workers of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR), the unconditional return of Manilal, and the release of imprisoned 1920 strikers. The authorities responded by deporting Muni from Fiji. Demands increased for direct representation in
3168-420: A scheme for co-operative stores and an agricultural bank financed by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company but the company refused to finance it. The Association asked for a higher price and Indian cane farmers refused to plant any more cane. The company made concessions, although it refused to guarantee the price increases for future years and refused to continue the bonus in 1921. The Indian Association of Fiji
3344-453: A single label of identification for those with South Asian ancestry in Fiji has fuelled a debate that has continued for many decades. Labels that use the term ‘Indian’ can be seen as problematic. This is because the term ‘Indian’ no longer accurately represents people with ancestry from the various countries of the Indian subcontinent , such as modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal. In
3520-450: A struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence. In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred
3696-473: A third of the existing Indian population in Fiji. They were victimized a lot by the military adding to the reasons they moved abroad to Canada, Australia, and the United States. Another reason a lot of skilled Indo-Fijians were migrating to other countries was for a better future. This caused Fiji to lose a lot of their skilled workers. Moreover, many Indo-Fijians strived for a better education causing
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#17328023569103872-781: A united Fiji. All three Citizen's Federation candidates were elected to the Legislative Council. In the Western Constituency, A.D. Patel defeated the president of the Kisan Sangh by 6244 votes to 3346, in the North Viti Levu Constituency, Sidiq Koya defeated James Shankar Singh by 3,998 votes to 3,480 and in the Northern Constituency James Madhavan defeated won by 2,753 votes to 2,175. There
4048-606: Is a union representing school teachers in Fiji . It had its beginning when on 7 December 1929, an organisation known as the Teachers' Association of Fiji was formed in Lautoka , with Pandit Ami Chandra as president and W. K. Phillip as Secretary. The aim of this Association was to improve the standard of education in Fiji schools, to raise the status and to improve and safeguard the conditions of employment of its members and to work for
4224-467: Is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity, though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole. The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor , dating to about 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during
4400-546: Is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast , while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year. Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean , its northern latitude and
4576-641: Is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. There has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a 2004 referendum , this has not been carried out. In 2024, an England-only intergovernmental body, known as
4752-669: Is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain two national parks , the Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District . In the West Country , Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite. The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including
4928-780: Is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship. With the East India Company , England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. An armada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham . This failure did not end
5104-623: Is mostly found in the north and west, including Dartmoor , the Lake District , the Pennines , and the Shropshire Hills . The country's capital is London , the metropolitan area of which has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London,
5280-562: Is part of the United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system . There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707 , putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union , joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England . Today England
5456-472: Is similar to that of other areas in the British Isles with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats. National nature reserves in England are designated by Natural England as key places for wildlife and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of
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5632-519: The 1535–1542 acts . There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I . The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism . The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as
5808-864: The 1966 elections , two members of the Congress contested the election for the Alliance Party and lost. With Vijay R. Singh supporting direct membership of the Alliance, relations between him and Prasad worsened and the National Congress was wound up in 1967. Indians in Fiji Indo-Fijians ( Fiji Hindi : फ़िजी के हिंदुस्तानी ), also known as Indian Fijians (also colloquially known as " Findians " or " Findus "), are Fijian citizens of South Asian descent , and include people who trace their ancestry to various regions of
5984-643: The Age of Discovery . Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England . In contrast with much of European Protestantism , the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with
6160-583: The Angeln region of what is now the German state of Schleswig-Holstein . The earliest recorded use of the term, as " Engla londe ", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People . The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of
6336-828: The Awadh and Bhojpur regions of the Hindi Belt in northern India . Indians in Fiji speak Fiji Hindi also known as ‘Fiji Baat’ which is based on the Awadhi dialect with major influence from Bhojpuri . It is a koiné language with its own grammatical features, distinct to the Modern Standard Hindi spoken in India . The major home districts of Fiji's North Indian labourers were Basti , Gonda , Lucknow , Kanpur , Faizabad , Ballia , Ghazipur , Gorakhpur , Sultanpur , Siwan , Shahabad , Saran , and Azamgarh , in
6512-590: The Battle of Trafalgar confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people , shared with the English, Scots and Welsh. London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era , and trade within the British Empire – as well as
6688-536: The Battle of Watling Street . The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000. This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law , Roman architecture , aqueducts , sewers , many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York ), where Constantine
6864-542: The British Empire since 1837. A recruiting office was set up especially around Calcutta and the South, West and North later, especially a lot in rural village areas in different farming regions, land and areas. The Leonidas , a labour transport vessel, disembarked at Levuka from Calcutta on 14 May 1879. The 498 indentured workers who disembarked were the first of over 61,000 to arrive from South and East Asia in
7040-624: The British Isles , but also from the Commonwealth , particularly the Indian subcontinent . Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry . As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union . Since the late 20th century the administration of
7216-772: The Colony of Fiji as indentured labourers between 1879 and 1916 to work on Fiji's sugar-cane plantations . Mahendra Chaudhry became Fiji's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister on 19 May 1999. Indians had been employed for a long time on the European ships trading in Colonial India and the East Indies . Many of the early voyages to the Pacific either started or terminated in India and many of these ships were wrecked in
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7392-610: The Cotswold Hills , Chiltern Hills , North and South Downs ; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover . This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain , Somerset Levels , South Coast Plain and The Fens . England has a temperate maritime climate : it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer. The weather
7568-744: The Court of Appeal , the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales . It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords . A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in
7744-412: The Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union , as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland . The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent – stare decisis – to the facts before them. The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of
7920-436: The French Revolution , under George III and William Pitt the Younger . The regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. During the Napoleonic Wars , Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east ; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea by Horatio Nelson , and on land by Arthur Wellesley . The major victory at
8096-417: The Indian subcontinent . Although Indo-Fijians constituted a majority of Fiji's population from 1956 through the late 1980s, discrimination and the resulting brain drain resulted in them numbering 313,798 (37.6%) (2007 census) out of a total of 827,900 people living in Fiji as of 2007 . Although they hailed from various regions in the subcontinent, the vast majority of Indo-Fijians trace their origins to
8272-432: The Kingdom of Great Britain . England is the origin of the English language , the English legal system (which served as the basis for the common law systems of many other countries), association football , and the Anglican branch of Christianity; its parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into
8448-418: The Labour Party , 116 from the Conservative Party , 65 from the Liberal Democrats , five for Reform UK and four for the Green Party of England and Wales . The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana ). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of
8624-400: The Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons , came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to
8800-402: The Maha Sangh , the Vishal Sangh , the Labasa Kisan Sangh , and the Kisan Sangh . The united front did not last as the two Kisan Sanghs accepted the contract offered by the company while the Maha Sangh and Vishal Sangh opposed it and called their members out on strike. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, although not an Indian only organisation, it does however originate from India and many of
8976-415: The Maha Sangh . The Labasa Kisan Sangh (Labasa Farmers Union) was formed in 1950 as negotiations began for the new cane contract and was based on the island of Vanua Levu in Fiji . It was sponsored by the Kisan Sangh and Ayodhya Prasad based in the western districts of Viti Levu and was in competition of the Maha Sangh, which had also spread its activities to Vanua Levu. Due to its distance from
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#17328023569109152-424: The Mayoral Council for England , was established to bring together ministers from the UK Government , the Mayor of London and the leaders of combined authorities . In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster , there are 543 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. England is represented by 347 MPs from
9328-438: The Ministry of Justice , manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales as of September 2022 . The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division , controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government . Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48 ceremonial counties . These are used primarily as
9504-404: The National Democratic Party to form the National Federation Party , which is still a player on the Fijian political scene . The National Congress of Fiji was formed on 10 January 1965 in Lautoka , Fiji by Ayodhya Prasad , the Secretary of the Kisan Sangh . The Congress sent a telegram to the Secretary General of the United Nations stating that 80,000 Fiji Indians wanted to settle in
9680-407: The Qarase government, called for the use of the term "Indo-Fijian" to be officially banned. He declared that the term was "unacceptable", and that Indo-Fijians should be referred to only as "Indians". The Hindustan Times reported Navakamocea had "alleged that the Indo-Fijian term was coined by Indian academics in Fiji to 'Fijianise' their Indian ethnicity", which, in Navakamocea's view, undermined
9856-450: The Secretary of State for the Colonies about residential tax and other issues, but the Government regarded it as representing only the urban educated Indians and refused to recognise it. On 9 December 1934, The Indian Association was reformed, this time as a successor to the Fiji Indian National Congress . Its president was A. D. Patel and Vishnu Deo was its secretary. The Association made representations to England and India opposing
10032-518: The Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore ), which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length. There are many lakes in England ; the largest is Windermere , within the aptly named Lake District . Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in
10208-416: The South East , and conurbations in the Midlands , the North West , the North East , and Yorkshire , which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century. The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Englaland , which means "land of the Angles ". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages . They came from
10384-479: The State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren . By
10560-451: The Stuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union , to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate. Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from
10736-465: The Sunni Muslims in Fiji who are mostly followers of Imam Shafi . The followers of Imam Shafi in Fiji are the descendants of Muslims of Malayalam origin who came to Fiji under the indenture system from Kerala in South India between 1903 and 1916. The other Sunni Muslim organisation in Fiji, the Fiji Muslim League , represents all other Sunni Muslims in Fiji who are mostly followers of Imam Hanafi . The organisation originally operated under
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#173280235691010912-433: The Trinovantes . The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius , subsequently conquering much of Britain , and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province . The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus . Later, an uprising led by Boudica , Queen of the Iceni , ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at
11088-412: The United Kingdom (green) England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom . It is located on the island of Great Britain , of which it covers about 62%, and more than 100 smaller adjacent islands . It has land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south, the Celtic Sea to
11264-419: The Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths , bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula . The sea level
11440-399: The Western Division . The Government had appointed a commission to inquire into the farmers' grievances and the Rewa farmers wanted to send a representative to it. The Rewa Planters Union took an active role in the negotiations for the 1950 cane contract. With the closure of the Nausori sugar mill in 1959, the union ceased to exist. The Southern Division Kisan Sangh was formed in 1946 by
11616-470: The canal age in Britain . In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public. During the Industrial Revolution , many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and Manchester , with the latter the world's first industrial city. England maintained relative stability throughout
11792-438: The de facto leader of the Indo-Fijian community, persuaded the colonial government of Fiji to form an Indian platoon for the Allied war effort during the First World War . He sent the names of 32 volunteers to the colonial government but his requests were ignored. As a result, a number of Fiji Indians volunteered for the New Zealand Army while one served in Europe during the First World War. In 1934, Governor Fletcher enacted
11968-435: The decline of the Roman Empire , Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars. Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished. This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in
12144-434: The golden age in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature. England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government. Competing with Spain , the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke . The Roanoke colony failed and
12320-473: The jet engine led to wider air travel . Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, providing publicly funded health care to all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century. Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of
12496-426: The sugar cane industry, recognising the need to establish a stable economic base for the colony, but were unwilling to exploit indigenous labour and threaten the Fijian way of life . The use of imported labour from the Solomon Islands and what is now Vanuatu generated protests in the United Kingdom, and the Governor Sir Arthur Hamilton-Gordon decided to implement the indentured labour scheme, which had existed in
12672-685: The 1996 census (the latest available), 76.7% of Indo-Fijians are Hindus and a further 15.9% are Muslims . Christians comprise 6.1% of the Indo-Fijian population, while about 0.9% are members of the Sikh faith. The remaining 0.4% are mostly nonreligious. Hindus in Fiji belong mostly to the Sanātana Dharma sect (74.3% of all Hindus); a minority (3.7%) follow Arya Samaj . Smaller groups, including The International Society for Krishna Consciousness , and numerous unspecified Hindu sects, comprise 22% of
12848-642: The 32 London Boroughs and the 25 Wards of the City of London . Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly . It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to
13024-435: The 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had extensive cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the Age of Discovery , which began during the 15th century. The Kingdom of England , which included Wales after 1535, ceased to be a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union brought into effect a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland that created
13200-575: The 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age . Details of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control. Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in
13376-437: The British colonial rule and the subsequent partitioning and division of the subcontinent into several countries, including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, the term 'India' primarily began to refer to the country that gained independence from the British in 1947, and 'Indian' began to refer primarily to citizens and inhabitants of that new country, rather than all people of the subcontinent. This change in political demarcation and
13552-676: The English kingdom of Northumbria . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus , Germania , in which
13728-535: The European continent. It is separated from France ( Hauts-de-France ) by a 21-mile (34 km) sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone . England also has shores on the Irish Sea , North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The ports of London, Liverpool , and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames , Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 miles (350 km),
13904-749: The Europeans as their commanding and non-commissioned officers, the Native Fijians had Ratu Edward Cakobau , a Native Fijian, as their commanding officer. Prior to the Second World War , soldiers served voluntarily and were paid "capitation grants" according to efficiency ratings without regard to race. In 1939, during the mobilisation of the Fiji Defence Force, the colonial government changed its payment system to four shillings per day for enlisted men of European descent while enlisted men of non-European descent were paid only two shillings per day;
14080-503: The Fiji Council of Churches and Assembly of Christian Churches has stated that the coup is "un-Christian" and is "manifestation of darkness and evil". He claimed that "52% of Fijians are Christian and the country's Christian values are being undermined." Indo Fijians are concentrated in the so-called Sugar Belt and in cities and towns on the northern and western coasts of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu ; their numbers are much scarcer in
14256-651: The Fiji Muslim League has sought to obtain separate representation for Muslims, in the Legislative Council till 1970, and in Parliament (both the House of Representatives and the Senate ) since 1970. Hindu Maha Sabha was an organisation representing various Hindu organisations and was formed in Fiji in late 1926, following the formation of All-India Hindu Maha Sabha in India . Although
14432-645: The Fijian Affairs [Amendment] Decree 2010. The new law effectively replaces the word 'Fijian' or 'indigenous' or 'indigenous Fijian' with the word 'iTaukei' in all written laws, and all official documentation when referring to the original and native settlers of Fiji. All Fiji citizens are now called 'Fijians' The correct label and identity for Indo-Fijians has historically been debated. Common labels such as Fijian Indian , as Fiji-Indian and Indo-Fijian have been used inter-changeably. These labels have proved culturally and politically controversial, and finding
14608-677: The Government seeking review of marriage law, an end to the death penalty and representation into the Legislative Council . The aim of the association was to ‘watch the interests of and to assist in the general improvement of the Indian community in Fiji’. As president of the I.I.A., Manilal Doctor wrote to Gandhi , other Indian leaders and the British Labour Party on the sad plight of Indian indentured labourers in Fiji . Following,
14784-509: The Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw . This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with
14960-656: The Hindu population. Muslims are mostly Sunni (59.7%) or unspecified (36.7%); there is an Ahmadiya minority (3.6%). Indian Christians are a diverse body, with Methodists forming the largest group (26.2%), followed by the Assemblies of God (22.3%), Roman Catholics (17%), and Anglicans (5.8%). The remaining 28.7% belong to a medley of denominations. There is an Indian Division of the Methodist Church in Fiji. About 5000 Indo-Fijian are Methodist. They are part of
15136-490: The House of Representatives; its support fell further still in the 2001 election , when it received only 22% of the Indo-Fijian vote, and in the 2006 election , when it dropped to an all-time low of 14%. The party formerly favoured by Indo-Fijian was the Fiji Labour Party , led by Mahendra Chaudhry , which received about 75% of the Indo-Fijian vote in 2001, and won all 19 seats reserved for Indo-Fijians. Founded as
15312-473: The Indian Platoon quickly disputed this disparity in pay. The colonial government, fearing this dissidence would eventually be shared by the Native Fijians, decided to disband the Indian platoon in 1940 citing lack of available equipment, such as military armour, as their reason. ‘Indians’ in Fiji were originally defined by the constitution of Fiji as anybody who can trace, through either the male or
15488-431: The Indo-Fijian community in politics. Ethnic South Asians outnumbered indigenous Fijians from 1956 through the late 1980s. This was due to the death of 1/3 of the indigenous population, mainly male and children, that died from measles contracted when King Cakobau and other chief leaders returned from a trip from Australia in 1875 during which they caught measles. The percentage of Indigenous female population increased as
15664-466: The League from its outset has attempted to assist in satisfying all the social needs of Muslims. Currently its involvement in social welfare is both at national and branch levels. In times of natural disasters or turmoil the League directly helps Muslims whose homes and lives are disrupted. Its charity keeps many Muslim families clothed, fed and housed, and helps them send their children to school. Since 1929
15840-464: The Methodist Church in Fiji and support the position of the Methodist Church in Fiji, rather than the rights of Indo-Fijians. The Indo-Fijian diaspora developed with people of South Asian ancestry leaving Fiji, mainly following the racially inspired coups of 1987 and 2000, to settle primarily in Australia, New Zealand , United States and Canada. Smaller numbers have settled in other Pacific islands,
16016-602: The North, and the successful Norman Conquest in October 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy invading at Hastings late September 1066. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had
16192-682: The Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and of France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War . The Black Death epidemic hit England ; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants . Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as the War of the Roses waged between
16368-476: The Republic of India. However, the sub-continent of India still exists, comprising many countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Afghanistan. It is commonly referred as South Asia, a more accurate geographic description and preferred term in many academic and scholarly contexts. Therefore, the term ‘Indo-Fijian’ is preferred as a way to refer to people with ancestry from
16544-952: The Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire . Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution , a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development. The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in
16720-488: The United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum . England
16896-517: The United Kingdom and other European countries. South Asians were initially brought to Fiji as indentured laborers to work on sugar cane plantations. Between 1879 and 1916, a total of 60,000 South Asians arrived in Fiji. Approximately, 25,000 of these have returned to South Asia. From 1900 onwards, some Indians arrived as free immigrants, who were mostly from the regions of Gujarat , Kutch , Sindh , and Punjab . Indo-Fijians have been emigrating to United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
17072-607: The United Kingdom as part of the Allies . Two decades later, in World War II , the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies . Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz . Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation , and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle 's development of
17248-490: The United Kingdom since the early 1960s. These were mainly economic migrants and their number gradually increased in the 1970s and 1980s to reach approximately 4000 per year. Following the military coup of 1987, many Indo-Fijians saw little future in staying in Fiji and tried to find any means to leave the country. Professional, middle class and business found it easier to emigrate. It has been estimated that more than 100,000 Fiji Indians have emigrated since 1987. This represents
17424-439: The abolition of the elected membership of Suva Municipal Council in 1934, with the council becoming a wholly appointed body. Two major Hindu movements attracted widespread support in the 1920s, and relationships between Hindus and Muslims also became increasingly strained. The Arya Samaj in Fiji advocated purging Hinduism of what it saw as its superstitious elements and expensive rituals, opposed child marriage, and advocated
17600-577: The area, the Beaker culture people made bronze , and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs , advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields ), as well as the production of more effective weapons. During the Iron Age , Celtic culture , deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic
17776-767: The auspices of James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century. Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I , known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This
17952-546: The betterment of the community as a whole. Its membership was open to all teachers whether from Fiji or overseas, whose certification was approved by the Department of Education of Fiji. Later this Association became the Fiji Teachers Union. Although it is a multi-racial organisation, the overwhelming majority of its members are of Indian origin. The Fiji Bharatiya Mazdur Sangh (Fiji Indian labour Union)
18128-742: The birth of Swami Vivekananda in Rakiraki , attended by people of all districts, the idea of forming the South Indian organisation was proposed. On 24 May 1926, at a meeting in Nadi, the Then India Sanmargya Ikya Sangam (TISI Sangam) was formed with Sadhu Swami. Sadhu Kuppuswami was elected the first President of Sangam and he remained its president for his lifetime. On 26 December 1927, the Madras Maha Sangam,
18304-585: The conquered territories by Anglo-Saxon paganism , but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597. Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about tonsures (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice. During
18480-541: The conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway . However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042. A dispute over the succession to Edward led to an unsuccessful Norwegian Invasion in September 1066 close to York in
18656-431: The coup in form of so-called " Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill ". In 2005, Methodist Church general secretary Reverend Ame Tugaue argued that the practice of Hinduism and other religions should not be guaranteed in law: Following the military coup in Fiji, which deposed the government of Laisenia Qarase (which Indo-Fijians claimed as unsympathetic to Indo-Fijian interests), Reverend Tuikilakila Waqairatu of
18832-556: The coups of 1987 for "brain drain" which has, he said, adversely affected the sugar industry, the standard of the education and health services, and the efficiency of the civil service. Similarly to the indigenous Fijian population, Indo-Fijian's face major obstacles when it comes to health. They are often cited in research articles as a group that has a higher than normal prevalence rate of Type 2 diabetes. England – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in
19008-454: The course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon , but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brittonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of
19184-883: The custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany. In Scottish Gaelic , the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England ( Sasunn ); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is Saesneg . A romantic name for England is Loegria , related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr , and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend . Albion
19360-637: The early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a 1998 referendum for the London Region created the London Assembly two years later. A failed 2004 North East England devolution referendum cancelled further regional assembly devolution with the regional structure outside London abolished. Ceremonially and administratively, the region is divided between the City of London and Greater London ; these are further divided into
19536-479: The early free migrants, there were religious teachers, missionaries and at least one lawyer. The government and other employers brought clerks, policemen, artisans, gardeners, experienced agricultural workers, a doctor and a school teacher. Punjabi farmers and Gujarati craftsmen also paid their own way to Fiji and in later years formed an influential minority amongst the Fiji Indians. In 1916, Manilal Doctor ,
19712-554: The female line, their ancestry back to anywhere on the Indian subcontinent and all government documents used this name. However, in August 2008, shortly before the proposed People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress was due to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a change in the name of Fiji's citizens. If the proposal were adopted, all citizens of Fiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called "Fijians". The Cabinet at its meeting on 30 June 2010 approved
19888-439: The following 37 years. The majority were from the districts of eastern and southern provinces, followed by labourers from northern and western regions, then later south eastern countries, they originated from different regions, villages, backgrounds and castes that later mingled or intermarried hence the "Fijian Indian" identity was created. The indentured workers originated mostly from rural village backgrounds. . The contracts of
20064-407: The formation of new countries has caused the meanings of 'India' and 'Indian' to evolve into a national identity. The terms, 'Fiji-Indian' or 'Fijian-Indian' also no longer accurately reflect those whom have ancestry from other parts of the subcontinent. With the creation of the independent nation of India in 1947, the term "Indian" began to be used more frequently to refer specifically to citizens of
20240-536: The formation of rival unions and the use of unions as power base for political aspirants. It gradually lost support and at present has an insignificant influence on Fiji's sugar industry. The Fiji Indian Football Association was formed under the leadership of Arthur Stanley Farebrother, a Suva businessman, as teams from Suva , Rewa , Ba , Levuka and Lautoka gathered in Suva for an inter-district tournament on 8 October 1938. The first inter-district football tournament
20416-538: The hierarchy, which must follow its directions. The Secretary of State for Justice is the minister responsible to Parliament for the judiciary , the court system and prisons and probation in England. Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of the highest incarceration rates in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. His Majesty's Prison Service , reporting to
20592-574: The iCavuti of "Luvedra na Ratu" (The Children of the Ratu). This decision was made in a traditional ceremony held at Ratu Sauvoli School grounds in Nabudrau, where the Tikina (a traditional Fijian political unit) of Noco presented their iCavuti to Ro Teimumu. This is the first time ever that the descendants of indentured labourers have been bestowed with a new iTaukei identity. For a long time, Fiji Indian
20768-462: The indentured labourers, which they called girmit (agreements), required them to work in Fiji for a period of five years. Living conditions on the sugar cane plantations, on which most of the girmityas (indentured labourers) worked, had poor standards which resembled that of slavery. Hovels known as "coolie lines" dotted the landscape. Public outrage in the United Kingdom and British India over human rights abuses of indentured labourers, such as
20944-472: The lack of educated leadership amongst the Fiji Indians and the dependence on European lawyers. Totaram Sanadhya was responsible for its Hindi language correspondence. The Indian Imperial Association (I.I.A.) came into existence in Fiji on 2 June 1918 to further the well-being of the Indian settlers in Fiji. Manilal Doctor became its first President and Ram Singh its Secretary. The association contained mainly educated Fiji Indians . It sent petitions to
21120-510: The late 1960s, the leader of the National Federation Party , A. D. Patel , who used the slogan, "One Country, One People, One Destiny" , suggested that all Fiji's citizens should be called Fijians and to distinguish the original inhabitants from the rest, the name Taukei should be used for native Fijians. At the time, there was opposition to this from some native Fijians who feared that any such move would deprive them of
21296-548: The legislature. In 1929 , South Asian immigrants and their descendants were authorised to elect three members to the Legislative Council on a communal roll . Vishnu Deo , James Ramchandar Rao and Parmanand Singh were duly elected. Agitation continued for a common roll , which the colonial administrators rejected, citing the fears of European settlers and Fijian chiefs that a common electoral roll would lead to political domination by South Asians, whose numbers were rapidly increasing. The fear of Indo-Fijian domination also led to
21472-498: The main island and communication problems, this union remained autonomous from the main body in Viti Levu and provided the political power base for Vijay R. Singh . The Federation of Cane Growers was formed as an umbrella organisation to negotiate the new cane contract due to take effect from 1960 with the Colonial Sugar Refining Company . Talks on the new contract started on 5 January 1960. The farmers’ representatives were from
21648-684: The members in Fiji are of an Indian descent. The community also runs a school in Fiji, the Ahmadiyya Muslim school and holds the distinction of managing the largest mosque in the South Pacific , the Fazle Omar Mosque. The Federation of Cane Growers Committee contested the 1963 Legislative Council election under the banner of Citizens Federation . It was not a properly constituted political party but sought to promote economic, cultural and political progress and stability in
21824-453: The metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties. The second tier is made up of combined authorities and the 27 county-tier shire counties . In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier. England is also divided into local government districts. The district can align to
22000-707: The mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – the Tories and Whigs . Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II , some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited the Dutch Prince William of Orange to defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. Under
22176-451: The monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church. Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles , Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over
22352-406: The name of Then India Maunatul Islam Association of Fiji since it was officially formed in 1942. One of the most prominent past President and Speaker of the Association was the late Hon S.M. Koya . The Rewa Planters Union was formed on 14 July 1943 at a meeting attended by 1500 cane farmers from Rewa Province , Fiji . The union was formed in reaction to the strike of cane farmers taking place in
22528-427: The nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members of The Wildlife Trusts partnership, the National Trust , and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . There are 221 NNRs in England covering 110,000 hectares (1,100 square kilometres). Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals. . The Environment Agency
22704-433: The north and west of the country. The northern uplands include the Pennines , a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the Cheviot Hills , straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in the Lake District. The Shropshire Hills are near Wales while Dartmoor and Exmoor are two upland areas in
22880-407: The organisation was formed to unite all the Hindu groups, its leadership soon came under the control of the better organised Arya Samajis . When Shri Krishna Sharma arrived in Fiji in 1927, he assumed leadership of the Sabha. The Hindu Maha Sabha (and the Fiji Muslim League) contested with the Indian Reform League (mainly supported by Indian Christians) for the right to represent Indians. The Sabha
23056-452: The paramountcy of indigenous rights. Navakamocea lost office in the 2006 military coup when the army accused the Qarase government of anti-Fijian Indian racism and overthrew it. The colonial rulers attempted to assuage Indo-Fijian discontent by providing for one of their number to be nominated to the Legislative Council from 1916 onwards. Badri Maharaj , a strong supporter of the British Empire but with little support among his own people,
23232-539: The present-day Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh and the present-day Bhojpur region of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand . Others (in a smaller quantity) originated in Haryana , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , and the Telugu regions. A small contingent of indentured labourers came from Afghanistan and Nepal. A small amount of free immigrants also came from Gujarat and Punjab . Many of the Muslim Indo-Fijians also came from Sindh and various other parts of South Asia . Fiji's British colonial rulers brought South Asian people to
23408-430: The proposal for a purely nominated system of choosing members to the Legislative Council . In 1935, the Association protested to restrictions to Indian immigration to Fiji. The Indian Reform League was formed in Fiji in 1924, following the refusal of the Suva Y.M.C.A. to admit Indians . Its founder was A.W. McMillan of the New Zealand Y.M.C.A and educated Indians and Government clerks and interpreters. Its aim
23584-512: The remarriage of widows, which orthodox Hinduism didn't promote at that time. The Arya Samaj also encouraged education for girls, which wasn't the norm at the time. The Arya Samaj began by establishing schools and by using a newspaper of one of its supporters, the Fiji Samachar founded in 1923, to expound their views. A post-war effort by European members of the Legislative Council to repatriate ethnic South Asians to modern-day India, starting with sixteen-year-old males and fourteen-year-old females,
23760-470: The same aim, S. B. Patel was able to persuade them to amalgamate on 7 November 1929 to form a single organisation. The aim of the Congress was to improve the status of the Fiji Indians by uniting the Indians and demanding common franchise. Vishnu Deo tried to model the Congress on the Indian National Congress , but it failed when non-Hindu members left following disagreement over the distribution of relief funds following floods in 1930. Fiji Teachers Union
23936-450: The settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , East Anglia , Essex , Kent and Sussex . Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued. The 7th century saw
24112-422: The signing of Magna Carta , an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by
24288-511: The south and inland areas. The majority of Indo-Fijians came from northern, northern eastern and southeastern part of India and converse in what is known as Fiji Hindi (also known as 'Fiji Baat'), this language has been constructed from eastern Hindi dialects mixed with some native Fijian and some English loan words, with some minorities speaking Gujarati , and Punjabi , and many who speak Tamil as their mother tongue with less fluency. Almost all Indo-Fijians are fluent in English. According to
24464-524: The south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees–Exe line . The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone , and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire . The Pennine landscape
24640-403: The south-west, and the Irish Sea to the west. Continental Europe lies to the south-east, and Ireland to the west. At the 2021 census , the population was 56,490,048. London is both the largest city and the capital . The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic . It takes its name from the Angles , a Germanic tribe who settled during
24816-447: The special privileges they had enjoyed since cession in 1874. The Fiji Times started using Fiji Islander to describe all Fiji's citizens but this name did not catch on. In 2017, The paramount chief of Rewa, Ro Teimumu Kepa, announced that the descendants of indentured labourers, who were brought to Fiji during colonial period as a cheap labor, now officially belong to the Vanua (tribal land) of Noco and Rewa, and will be known as
24992-436: The standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious. Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage . Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for
25168-500: The story of Kunti and Naraini played a factor in abolishing the scheme in 1916. However, Indenture continued unlawfully until the intervention of Banarsidas Chaturvedi and Reverend C.F. Andrews , which resulted in all existing indentured labourers being freed from contracts on 1 January 1920. From the early 1900s, Indians started arriving in Fiji as free agents. Many of these paid their own way and had previously served in Fiji or other British colonies or had been born in Fiji. Amongst
25344-406: The strike of 1920, the I.I.A. organised petitions in different languages, asking for Manilal to be allowed to stay in Fiji but after he was deported from Fiji in 1920, the I.I.A. collapsed. The Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji (Arya Representative Society), the national body for all the Arya Samajs in Fiji , was formed in 1918, although Arya Samaj had existed in Fiji since 1904. Its first President
25520-441: The threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597 , but both were driven back by storms. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots , James VI , a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a personal union . He styled himself King of Great Britain , although this had no basis in English law. Under
25696-473: The two branches of the royal family, the Yorkists and Lancastrians . Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors , a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed. During the Tudor period , England began to develop naval skills , and exploration intensified in
25872-450: The two communities, rather than ideological differences, have characterised Fijian politics since independence, with the two communities generally voting for different political parties. The National Federation Party founded by A.D. Patel, was the party favoured overwhelmingly by the Indo-Fijian community throughout most of the nation's history, but its support collapsed in the parliamentary election of 1999, when it lost all of its seats in
26048-433: The uncharted waters of the South Pacific . The first recorded presence of an Indian in Fiji was by Peter Dillon , a sandalwood trader in Fiji, of a lascar (Indian seaman) who survived a shipwreck, lived and settled there amongst the natives of Fiji in 1813. Before Fiji was colonized by Great Britain, some planters had tried to obtain Indian labour and had approached the British Consul in Levuka , Fiji but were met with
26224-699: The various regions of the sub-continent (such as modern-day Pakistan, Nepal and Afghanistan) rather than just those from modern-day India. The term is also more closely connected to the diaspora of the South Asian indentured labourers (or Coolies) who have settled in other countries, such as the Indo-Caribbeans , Indo-Mauritians , etc. This term, 'Indo-Fijian', has been used by various political figures such as Frank Bainimarama and Sitiveni Rabuka , as well as writers such as Adrian Mayer and Brij Lal . Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi , Fiji's Vice-President from 2004 to 2006, also used it in his speeches. In 2006, Jone Navakamocea , Minister of State for National Planning in
26400-428: The warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream . Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country. Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 40.3 °C (104.5 °F) on 19 July 2022 at Coningsby , Lincolnshire , while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond , Shropshire. The fauna of England
26576-425: The world's first industrialised nation. England is home to the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world: the University of Oxford , founded in 1096, and the University of Cambridge , founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world. England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills and plains , especially in the centre and south . Upland and mountainous terrain
26752-429: Was Swami Manoharanand Saraswati. The Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji is affiliated to Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha (World Council of Arya Samaj) based in New Delhi . Immediately after its formation the Sabha went about establishing schools in Fiji, with the first one, Gurukul Primary School , established in 1918 in Saweni, Lautoka . The Sabha owns and manages 14 pre-schools, 18 primary schools, 7 secondary schools,
26928-433: Was a sugar cane farmers' union formed on 15 June 1941 in opposition to the existing union, the Kisan Sangh . The people responsible for the formation of a second sugar cane farmers' union in Fiji were A. D. Patel and Swami Rudrananda . The union was supported mainly by the South Indian sugar cane farmers in Fiji . The Maha Sangh provided the support base for the launch of the political career of A. D. Patel. The Sangh
27104-471: Was a cane farmers union established in Fiji on 1 September 1946, by mainly Sikh farmers, who refused to re-join the Kisan Sangh after its reunification following the split of the Kisan Sangh into two factions in 1943. It was led by Mehar Singh , one of the founding members of the Kisan Sangh and its former vice-president. The Vishal Sangh played an active role in negotiations for cane contracts in 1950 and 1960 but always aligned itself with A. D. Patel and
27280-633: Was a short-lived union formed in June 1930 by Vishnu Deo and K. B. Singh for the benefit of the newly arrived Punjabi immigrants who were finding it hard to find employment in Fiji. Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat-i-Islam was formed in 1933 by some educated Muslims in Fiji who had earlier led the Fiji Muslim League but lost control of the League they offended the majority of Muslims in Fiji, who are Sunnis, by bringing Ahmadiyya missionaries from India. Some prominent Fiji Muslim who were Ahmadiyyas were Mohammed Towahir Khan and Mohammed Sahu Khan of Lautoka , and X.K.N. Dean of Suva. Kisan Sangh (Farmers Union)
27456-453: Was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms , involving Scotland and Ireland . The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth . Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II
27632-556: Was appointed by the Governor in 1916. His appointment did little to redress the grievances of the Indo-Fijian community. Buttressed by the Indian Imperial Association founded by Manilal Maganlal , a lawyer who had arrived in Fiji in 1912, the Indians continued to campaign for better work and living conditions, and for an extension of the municipal franchise; literacy tests disqualified most Indo-Fijians from participation. A strike by Indo-Fijian municipal workers and Public Works Department employees, which began on 15 January 1920, ended in
27808-401: Was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at
27984-478: Was formed in Suva by Verrappa Muthiah Pillai in Suva and branches were soon established in Levuka and Labasa . In 1937 the Madras Maha Sangam merged with the TISI Sangam. The arrival of Swami Avinashananda and Swami Rudrananda from the Ramakrishna Mission of India provided impetus to the Sangam which proceeded to promote South Indian language and culture. The Fiji Muslim League is a Muslim religious and social organisation based in Suva , Fiji . The League
28160-405: Was formed in 1920 by N. B. Mitter, who was the headmaster of a school in Nadi. The Association organised labourers from the Western Division, which included Ba, Nadi, Lautoka and Nadroga. In the early 1920s Ram Singh tried to revive the defunct Indian Imperial Association as the Indian Association of Fiji but having representatives from all sections of the Indian community. It made representations to
28336-407: Was formed on 20 April 1941, under the leadership of Alipati Tataiya and Veeranna, at the Gallau Temple in Ra . The aim of the new Sangam was to promote Telugu language and culture. Initially Telugus in Fiji were members of the TISI Sangam, but its domination by the more numerous Tamils led to the formation of the A ndhra Sangam . Akhil Fiji Krishak Maha Sangh (All Fiji Farmers’ Grand Union)
28512-426: Was formed on 31 October 1926, at a meeting at the Jame Masjid in Toorak, although a number of Muslim organisations had existed in Fiji since 1908. The League has made valuable contribution in the field of education in Fiji. The first school, Islamic Girls School, was already in existence in 1926. Today, the League owns and manages seventeen primary and five secondary schools plus a tertiary institution. Besides education,
28688-416: Was instrumental in the formation of the Suva Football Association, which was one of the original Associations that formed the Fiji Indian Football Association . The Then India Sanmarga Ikya Sangam (TISI Sangam) was founded in Fiji by Sadhu Kuppuswami , an ex-indentured labourer, who inspired South Indians to form an organisation to promote their language and culture. On 10 January 1926, while celebrating
28864-399: Was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration . With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This
29040-572: Was lower than the present day and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia . As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later. The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge (phase III) and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in
29216-554: Was no Citizens Federation candidate in the Southern Constituency, won by Andrew Deoki . All the three candidates opposing the Citizens Federation candidates were supporters of the Kisan Sangh The success of the Citizens Federation in the 1963 elections , and the impending constitutional convention, prompted A. D. Patel to transform the Citizens Federation into a fully fledged political party. The Federation Party came into existence on 21 June 1964, with A.D. Patel as president and S.M. Koya as vice-president. In 1968 it merged with
29392-513: Was not successful, but reflected the tensions between Fiji's ethnic communities. Differences between ethnic Fijians and Indians complicated preparations for Fiji independence, which the United Kingdom granted in 1970, and have continued to define Fiji politics since. Prior to independence, Indo-Fijians sought a common electoral roll, based on the principle of " one man, one vote ." Ethnic Fijian leaders opposed this, believing that it would favour urban voters who were mostly Indo-Fijian; they sought
29568-461: Was one of the unions that joined the umbrella organisation, the Federation of Cane Growers to negotiate the 1960 sugar cane contract with the CSR and remained within this organisation as it grew to be a fully fledged union. The original members of the Sangh remained the main support base for the Federation of Cane Growers and its successor, the Fiji Cane Growers Association . Maunatul Islam Association of Fiji (MIAF) represents approximately 30% of
29744-648: Was organised at village level into sangathans (religious unions) and was led in the Suva - Nausori area by Vishnu Deo , K. B. Singh , Kundan Singh Kush and the western districts of Viti Levu by Chattur Singh and Sahodar Singh. Conflict with Muslims and orthodox Hindus led to court action and a conviction in the early 1930s and the Sabha ceased to represent all the Hindu organisations in Fiji. The Fiji Indian National Congress started as two different organisations, one formed by Vishnu Deo in Lautoka on 12 October 1929 and another formed by Dr Hamilton Beattie in Suva on 14 October 1929. As both organisations had
29920-430: Was played for the Lloyd - Farebother trophy donated by Lloyd and Company and A.S. Farebrother and Company. The following year Nadi , Nadroga and Rakiraki also joined the Association. In 1943 Navua and Tailevu/Naitasiri joined the Association and Taveuni joined in 1947. In 1958, when the association celebrated its 21st inter-district tournament, 14 districts took part. The Dakshina India Andhra Sangam of Fiji
30096-568: Was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later. There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede , missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea , while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during
30272-528: Was supported by the Methodist Church. Some Methodist Church authorities have continued to advocate the establishment of a Christian state. In a letter of support from the then head of the Methodist Church, Reverend Tomasi Kanilagi, to George Speight , the leader of 19 May 2000 armed takeover of Parliament, Reverend Kanilagi publicly expressed his intention to use the Methodist Church as a forum under which to unite all ethnic Fiji political parties. The Methodist church also supported forgiveness to those who plotted
30448-415: Was the first successful farmers' union formed in Fiji on 27 November 1937 by Ayodhya Prasad . After initially opposing its formation, the Government and the sole sugar milling company in Fiji, Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR), were forced to recognise the Sangh as it gained support from most of the farmers and in 1941 won major gains for sugar cane farmers. This early success was not to be repeated with
30624-401: Was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy 's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from
30800-532: Was to carry out social work and apply pressure for social reform, like changes to marriage laws. Since most of its members were Indian Christians , it soon acquired a sectional character. It provided volunteer nurses during the typhoid epidemic of 1925. It had a women's wing known as the Stri Sewa Sabha (Women's Service League), founded in 1934, which carried out social work amongst Fiji Indian women. The League encouraged participation in sports, including in cricket , football , hockey and lawn tennis . The League
30976-412: Was used to distinguish between Fiji citizens of Indian origin and Indians from India. The term was used by writers like K.L. Gillion and by the academic and politician, Ahmed Ali . The late President of Fiji , Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara , also used this term in his speeches and writings. The term was also used by the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma , Fiji's largest Christian denomination, which had
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