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134-582: The Legio III Augusta was placed in Africa to ensure a steady grain supply to Rome. Under Augustus, the African Proconsul had command over it and several other legions. By the end of Tiberius's reign , it was the only legion in Africa. Under Caligula , command of the army was withdrawn from the proconsul and given to a Propraetorial legate who answered directly to the emperor. The Legio III Augusta first set up camp at Haidra before 14. The base at Haidra

268-540: A Comes Tingitaniae with a field army composed of two legions , three vexillations , and two auxilia palatina . Flavius Memorius held this office (comes) at some point during the middle of the fourth century. However, it is implicit in the source material that there was a single military command for both of the Mauretanian provinces, with a Dux Mauretaniae (a lower rank) controlling seven cohorts and one ala . The Germanic Vandals established themselves in

402-477: A Roman client state and end the threat it posed on the Roman- Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers. Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina , the daughter of Augustus's close friend and most famed general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . He was appointed to the position of praetor , and

536-460: A basic interpretation and timeline for the events and doings of the Legion, but does not provide a bibliography. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/legion.htm Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( / t aɪ ˈ b ɪər i ə s / ty- BEER -ee-əs ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus ,

670-422: A boar with a javelin to open soldiers' games, which severely limited his mobility in his final days. Since the 20th century, much scholarship has been dedicated to Tiberius's psychological profile. Modern assessments tend to agree that he likely suffered from lifelong major depressive disorder . Additionally, while wine consumption was a regular part of Roman life, contemporary sources note he consumed more than

804-510: A book-length psychological assessment of the Emperor, which further argued he suffered from some kind of anxiety disorder . Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler. Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterisation left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death. Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen

938-610: A difficult, resentful relationship with the Senate and suspected many plots against him. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective and efficient administrator. After the deaths of his nephew Germanicus in AD 19 and his son Drusus in 23, Tiberius became reclusive and aloof. In 26 he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his ambitious praetorian prefect Sejanus , whom he later had executed for treason, and then Sejanus's replacement, Macro . When Tiberius died, he

1072-536: A distinct system. Since these roads were commonly built for the use of military movement, they needed to be kept as straight (for speed of movement) and as safe as possible (Therefore where possible built on higher ground, avoiding valleys). Due to the higher location, some roads were even built with a system to drain water. Calculations estimate that the total length of roads in North Africa during Roman rule reached about 19,300 kilometres. Other important roads for

1206-620: A fleet to enable the passage of the Vandals to Tingis and Septem (Ceuta) . Bonifacius intended to confine the Vandals to Mauretania, but, once they had crossed the straits, they rejected any control and marched on Carthage . In 533 AD, the Byzantine general Belisarius reconquered the former Diocese of Africa from the Vandals on behalf of the Emperor Justinian I . All the territory west of Caesarea had already been lost by

1340-405: A flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the produce of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit of this mountain is covered with snow even in summer, and says that having arrived there after a march of ten days, he proceeded some distance beyond it as far as a river which bears the name of Ger (a northern affluent of

1474-411: A high level of prosperity within this veteran settlement. Life after the military was apparently not as harsh as life in the military. The town's paved streets can still be walked on today, and it is possible to see the numerous public buildings as well. A library, a large theater (seating between 4000–5000 people) and most notably an amazing forum are all still standing. Trajan's arch is also visible. This

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1608-586: A new coalition from the collected Roman soldiers and North African citizens looking to rebel against the expansion of the Roman Empire into the Musulamii people, under his sole command. With the traditional tactics used by the Roman army, the enemy was expected to attack in formation, as the Roman legions did. With the rebellion of Tacfarinas, Roman commanders had to change their mode of attack. The general of

1742-597: A part. Tacitus understood this to be Tiberius's innermost reason for moving to Rhodes, a reflection of his hatred of Julia and his longing for Vipsania. Tiberius, forbidden to see the woman he loved, found himself married to a woman he loathed, and publicly humiliated by her nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum . Whatever Tiberius's motives, his withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus's succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There

1876-493: A picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule. The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius's image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius's withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through

2010-462: A pillow. Seneca the Elder also reports Tiberius having died a natural death. According to Cassius Dio , Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius's requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then, assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes. Neither Josephus, Pliny, nor Philo relate the story of Tiberius's suffocation, stating simply

2144-550: A replacement. In AD 26, Tiberius moved to an imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri . It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure ( otium ) and a Hellenised lifestyle. Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD ;15. As Tiberius became more embittered with

2278-406: A series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina

2412-480: A young man, he was considered attractive by Roman beauty standards. Even in adulthood, he was prone to severe acne outbreaks. He wore his hair cut short at the front and sides but long in the back so it covered the nape of his neck in a style similar to the mullet , which Suetonius claims was a family tradition of the Claudian gens. This assertion is confirmed by busts of other Claudian men, who were depicted with

2546-482: Is during this time that the question of Augustus's heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus's chief problem. In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus's direction, receiving

2680-518: Is no evidence of a defensive wall like the one that protected the turbulent frontier in Britain at the other extremity of the Roman Empire. Rather, it was a network of forts and ditches that seems to have functioned as a filter. The limes – the word from which the English word “limit” is derived – protected the areas that were under direct Roman control by funnelling contacts with the interior through

2814-468: Is the southernmost Roman settlement discovered until now). Some historians, like Leo Africanus , believe the Roman frontier reached the area of Casablanca , founded by the Romans as a port named "Anfa". Indeed, the modern city of Azemmour in central Morocco lies on the ancient Azama , a trading port of Phoenician and later Roman origins. Still today can be seen the remains of a Roman deposit for grain in

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2948-429: The mensor , whose position was comparable to that of a contractor, and he was in charge of overseeing the production. His main purpose was to assist in the layout of Roman camps and towns, and he directed the use of measuring instruments. One of the most commonly used devices was a groma which helped with the measurement of right angles. However, the mensor and the legionaries were not always experts so

3082-566: The gens Claudia , an ancient patrician family that came to prominence in the early years of the republic. His mother was also a member of the Livii family, an ancient plebeian but prominent family, through the adoption into it of his maternal grandfather. Little is recorded of Tiberius's early life. In 39 BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, remarried to Octavian , later known as Augustus. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus ,

3216-635: The Diocese of Hispaniae , 'the Spains', and, by extension, part of the Praetorian prefecture of Gaul , thus it was across the sea from the European territory of Diocese and Prefecture it belonged to. Mauretania Caesariensis was in the Diocese of Africa . Lucilius Constantius is recorded as governor (praeses) in the late fourth century. The Notitia Dignitatum shows also, in its military organisation,

3350-573: The Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide. In AD 22, Tiberius shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus, and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus died in mysterious circumstances, and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate

3484-452: The consulship . He was cremated with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, deified , his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir. Tiberius peacefully took power, unchallenged by any rivals. On 17 September Tiberius called the Senate in order to validate his position as Princeps , and, as had Augustus before him, grant himself its powers. Tiberius already had

3618-466: The standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae ), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC) and, after negotiations with Parthia's King Phraates IV , either Augustus or Tiberius, or perhaps both together, were able to reclaim them for Rome. Tiberius then led a sizeable force into Armenia , presumably to establish it as

3752-607: The traditional Berber religion and Christianity . The two Mauretania provinces were consolidated as the territory of al-Maghrib (Arabic for 'the West', and still the official name of the Sharifian Kingdom of Morocco ). This larger province also included over half of modern Algeria. Stone ruins dating from the Roman era exist at various archaeological sites, including the Capitoline Temple at Volubilis ,

3886-512: The Atlantic coast: Iulia Constantia Zilil , Iulia Valentia Banasa and Iulia Campestris Babba . This western part of Mauretania was to become the province called Mauretania Tingitana shortly afterwards. The region remained a part of the Roman Empire until 429, when the Vandals overran the area and Roman administrative presence came to an end. The most important city of Mauretania Tingitana

4020-544: The Augustan Legion when they were particularly vulnerable. It is reported that the first attacks were in 14 AD when the Legion had just completed its first road building project. The timing suggests that the Third Augustan Legion had not yet established its roots or an approving reputation. This first revolt was swiftly put down. However, just three years later Tacfarinas started his attacks against

4154-536: The Elder and her family, Caligula , Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla , and Julia Livilla were the only survivors. In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia , and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with

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4288-521: The Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps , or as a possible regent . Livilla was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years. The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to

4422-692: The Legio III Augusta happened in 14 AD: It connected their base in Ammaedara, through Thelepte , all the way to the Oasis of Gafsa. Further expansion occurred under the rule of Tiberius with a road from the Oasis of Gafsa to the Oasis of Gabes. Between these two cities, the Legion stopped for rest and created five stations. The Legion sometimes followed the previously existing paved road or hard-packed dirt tracks between Punic or Berber towns, but they mainly created new roads. Their construction followed

4556-466: The Legio III Augusta included the one linking Tebessa to the port of Hippo Regius . Its construction was imperative for more efficient delivery of supplies to the Legion and town. Another was the road from Tébessa (Tebessa) to Carthage ; both roads were built during Vespasian 's reign. Finally, a road built under Trajan ran south across the mountains of the Gulf of Syrte. The strategic importance of

4690-445: The Legion had to settle, however no army of rebels proved as difficult, incessant, or resilient as the guerrilla army under Tacfarinas. The Third Augustan Legion was responsible for multiple building projects and the enforced the presence of the Roman Empire against rebellions in North Africa for over three hundred years. However, they influenced the frontier in ways other than through expansion and urbanization. Militarily, they reformed

4824-689: The Niger river?); the road being through deserts covered with a black sand, from which rocks that bore the appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, projected every here and there; localities rendered quite uninhabitable by the intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced, although it was in the winter season that he visited them. During the reign of the Numidian King Juba II , Emperor Augustus had already founded three colonias (with Roman citizens) in Mauretania close to

4958-434: The Roman military camp. The Via Septimiana —a road built under the reign of Septimius Severus in the town of Lambaesis - illustrates this with the presence of a Triple Arch, marking the boundary where the Third Augustan Legion was within its military zone. The members of the Third Augustan Legion did not solely consist of military men. The Emperors made an effort to recruit some men that were experts in surveying and

5092-463: The Romans as soldiers, especially as light cavalry. Clementius Valerius Marcellinus is recorded as the governor ( praeses ) between 24 October 277 and 13 April 280. According to tradition, the martyrdom of St Marcellus took place on 28 July 298 at Tingis (Tangier). During the Tetrarchy (Emperor Diocletian 's reform of Roman governmental structures in 297), Mauretania Tingitana became part of

5226-401: The Romans. The guerrilla warfare tactics combined with Tacfarinas' novel approach to attack from the rear, created additional difficulties for the Third Augustan Legion in their efforts to defeat Tacfarinas. The manner in which Tacfarinas led his rebellions was of particular concern to the Third Augustan Legion. At first, Tacfarinas did not appear to be a great threat; his initial band of fighters

5360-541: The Third Augustan Legion split up the army into small units of men that took orders from a commanding officer. These units of men were constantly battle ready, mobile, and trained to fight in the desert, anticipating attacks from Tacfarinas and his rebels. With this change in traditional tactics, Tacfarinas was defeated in a matter of years. Tacfarinas' army was ultimately defeated and Tacfarinas himself committed suicide, however his revolts and rebellious efforts should not go unnoticed. The Third Augustan Legion had to master

5494-522: The Third Augustan during this time spent his days securing food, fuel, fodder, and completing general duties of camp life. They rebuilt structures, built roads, and repaired equipment. It is likely that they went out on routine patrols of the countryside. The Legio III Augusta built the thirty-nine kilometers of the Lambaesis aqueduct in eight months, and the Legion or its temporary successor kept

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5628-589: The Vandals to the Berber " Mauri ", but a re-established Dux Mauretaniae kept a military unit at Septem (modern Ceuta ). This was the last Byzantine outpost in Mauretania Tingitana; the rest of what had been the Roman province was united with the Byzantine part of Andalusia under the name of the Praetorian prefecture of Africa , with Septem as administrative capital. Most of the Maghreb littoral

5762-403: The accuracy of the groma only helped to a certain extent. When this happened, surveyors had to be recalled for recalculations. There is a well-preserved inscription depicting this situation in Africa. The surveyor, Nonius Datus, wrote about his encounters with the Third Augustan Legion and how he had carefully surveyed, taken the measures of all the mountains and mapped out the axis for which

5896-601: The administrative and political powers of the Princeps , but he lacked the titles of Augustus and Pater Patriae ("Father of the country"), and refused the Civic Crown . Like Augustus before him, Tiberius may have sought to represent himself as a reluctant yet devoted public servant, no more than an ordinary citizen who wanted to serve the state and people to the best of his ability, but his refusal of these titular, quasi-religious honours, and his reluctance to accept

6030-465: The area. It is uncertain whether or not the Legion participated in the construction of these buildings, but it is clear that they were once in the town of their home base. The Legion was moved a third and final time to station at Lambaesis in 128 AD. Once again this move was for strategic reasons as it was located in the Aures Mountains . This placement was the optimal location for control over

6164-581: The bonuses promised to them by Augustus, and showed early signs of mutiny when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus Julius Caesar , were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus took charge of the mutinous troops and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, promising that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces took over all

6298-426: The building projects. The most common construction projects soldiers were requested to work on were aqueducts, fortifications and amphitheaters. Typically they were more involved with "monumental projects" rather than "pure architecture." The legion was therefore no solely a military force but also a corps of engineers and surveyors, which required an advanced mix of skills. The first instance of military roads built by

6432-590: The clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania , both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy. In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni . Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from

6566-454: The conclusion of the lustral ceremonies." Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year AD 12, after Tiberius's return from Germania. "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private." Augustus died on 19 August AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday and exactly 56 years after he first assumed

6700-413: The construction of the big duties like canals or aqueducts. The construction of aqueducts was not an easy job. It was very difficult to make sure all the pipes were level and that the pressure was correct at both ends. The surveyor was responsible for calculating all these measurements beforehand and then leaving the directions with the procurator. They would most likely be handed off to an officer known as

6834-454: The continent. In the far west, the southern limit of imperial rule was Volubilis, which was ringed with military camps such as Tocolosida slightly to the south east and Ain Chkour to the north-west, and a fossatum or defensive ditch. On the Atlantic coast Sala Colonia was protected by another ditch and a rampart and a line of watchtowers. This was not a continuous line of fortifications: there

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6968-454: The date and location of his death, contradictory accounts exist of the precise circumstances. Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius's villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. He goes on to report that those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of

7102-492: The date of his death and/or the length of his reign. Modern medical analysis has concluded Tiberius most likely died as a result of myocardial infarction . After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honours that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the Tiber with Tiberius!" (the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt). However,

7236-586: The death in 40 AD of Ptolemy of Mauretania , the last Ptolemaic ruler of the Kingdom of Mauretania , in about 44 AD Roman Emperor Claudius annexed the kingdom to the Roman Empire and partitioned it into two Roman provinces : Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis . The Mulucha ( Moulouya River ), located around 60 km west of modern Oran , Algeria , became the border separating them. The Roman occupation did not extend very far into

7370-499: The death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more. In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius. The death of Gaius initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted in 26 June as full son and heir, and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew Germanicus ,

7504-475: The demand for troops during the 2nd century. As a result, the African Legions had to get manpower from eastern and local sources. When the Legion was not campaigning, it was engaged in vast public works projects across North Africa. There was very little serious fighting between the end of Tacfarinas ' rebellion in AD 24 and the assassination of Severus Alexander in 235. It is believed that a soldier in

7638-460: The disfigurement of his face may have been contributing factors to his retreat to Capri, and noted that he regularly attempted to cover his sores with plaster . Despite this, Suetonius reports that Tiberius enjoyed good general health for the duration of his reign. Late in life he suffered from a poor pulse, which modern scholars believe may have been a sign of heart disease . Shortly before his death, he suffered an injury to his back while killing

7772-599: The east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania. He returned to Rome and

7906-448: The emperor Maximinus in favor of the provincial governor Gordianus." Capelianus was a legate in the legion and the officer who (mis)used his legion to attack Gordian. For this reason, Gordian III disbanded the legion. In 252, Valerian reformed the legion to deal with the "five people groups", a dangerous coalition of Berber tribes. The legion prevailed in 260 but the threat remained, and fortifications of Lambaesis were expanded over

8040-518: The emperor was cremated, and his ashes were placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus . In his will , Tiberius nominated Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus as his joint heirs. Caligula's first act on becoming Princeps was to void Tiberius's will. Suetonius describes Tiberius as being pale skinned, broad shouldered, left-handed , and exceptionally strong and tall for a Roman, although he had poor posture. Suetonius and Paterculus both write that, as

8174-408: The emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes. Suetonius reports that, upon recovering after an illness, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, Tiberius attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. Suetonius further reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with

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8308-501: The empire-wide cult to the deceased Augustus. When Tiberius died, he was given a sumptuous funeral befitting his office, but no divine honours. He came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really wanted to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men". Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . Both of his biological parents belonged to

8442-506: The exception of ruins of theaters and churches that are quite recognizable. A large military cemetery has been found, most of the tombs being from legionaries. During their time stationed at Ammaedara, the Legion discovered the town of Sbeitla. Many soldiers were recruited from this town. Then in 75 AD the Legion's camp was moved to Theveste (present day Tebessa ). However, many of the veterans stayed behind and were able to settle in town, several becoming farmers. The move to Theveste in 75 AD

8576-418: The existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants. The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire, ensuring the imperial institutions introduced by his adoptive father would remain for centuries to come. Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe

8710-435: The extraordinary height of this mountain, and at the same time he has stated that all the lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense and lofty forests composed of trees of species hitherto unknown. The height of these trees, he says, is remarkable; the trunks are without knots, and of a smooth and glossy surface; the foliage is like that of the cypress, and besides sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered with

8844-407: The eyes of Tiberius, who thereafter refers to him as his Socius Laborum (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome. Sejanus's position

8978-431: The first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Claudius Nero and his wife, Livia Drusilla . In 38 BC, Tiberius's mother divorced his father and married Augustus. Following the untimely deaths of Augustus's two grandsons and adopted heirs, Gaius and Lucius Caesar , Tiberius was designated Augustus's successor. Prior to this, Tiberius had proved himself an able diplomat and one of

9112-425: The following generations, crops were sold to Rome and the economic status of the cities inhabitants shifted; some became wealthy while others remained in comparative poverty. The wealthy were not only able to build better homes for themselves, but also contributed to the town of Timgad by donating money for public monuments. The presence of a library within the town signifies a high standard of learning and indicates

9246-416: The following years. In 289, the struggle began again and the emperor Maximianus took personal control of the legion. The war lasted until 297 at which point the legion was victorious. In the early 4th century, Diocletian personally put down a rebellious governor and immediately afterward, transferred the Legio III Augusta from Lambaesis to another, unknown base within the region. Diocletian often worked with

9380-485: The four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the emperor's tyranny. While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, cruelty, and most of all his paranoia. While heavily sensationalised, Suetonius's stories at least paint

9514-684: The full powers of a princeps were taken as insults to the elite who offered them; signs of hypocrisy, not humility. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves". Antagonism between Tiberius and his senate seems to have been a feature of his rule. In his first few years as emperor, Tiberius seems to have wanted the Senate to act alone, with no reference to him or his responsibilities as "first Senator". His direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debates on what he actually meant, rather than passing his legislation. The Roman legions in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid

9648-457: The governor of Syria, of poisoning him. The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps . Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius. Whether the governor actually could connect

9782-468: The important facts and figures. Hartwell categorizes the three hundred years into sections that read easily and provide reliable information found from primary sources. http://hauburn.tripod.com/LegIII.html 2. This website provides a chronologically accurate timeline of the Legion. However, the author of this website does not appear to use any primary sources in their bibliography. https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/iii_augusta.html 3. The author provides

9916-497: The leadership of the Princeps . Suetonius records that he became paranoid , and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. During this period there was a short invasion by Parthia , and incursions on Roman territories by Dacian and Germanic tribes. Little was done to plan or secure Tiberius's succession . The Julians and their supporters were diminished in numbers and political influence, thanks to Sejanus, and Tiberius's immediate heirs were dead. Caligula ,

10050-413: The legion during the period of military anarchy from 235 to 284. He was particularly prolific with his building projects, many of which were in Africa. Most of the projects were aimed at either replacing earlier works destroyed during the period of military anarchy or repairing public improvements, which had been allowed to fall into decay. The Legion was the main labor resource for these projects. The legion

10184-499: The legionaries invested part of their time in the construction of roads, bringing with it the expansion of the empire. These new connections led to the development of new towns and cities for civilians, camps for the military and even colonies for the veterans. All three were usually distinct from each other, but as time progressed, civilian towns, military camps and veterants colonies tended to merge. The Legion did not always build up an entire town. Often, civilians assisted in part of

10318-471: The long roads built in Leptis Magna helped open up the interior lands. Farmers seized this opportunity to plant more olive groves and therefore more oil was able to be exported to Rome. Once towns began to take in close proximity to military camps, marks of separation were needed. Typically, arches were used to mark on roads (or above them) the distinction between the civilian area and the entrance into

10452-420: The major settlements, regulating the links between the nomads and transhumants with the towns and farms of the occupied areas. The same people lived on both sides of these limes, although the population was quite small. Volubilis had perhaps twenty thousand inhabitants at most in the second century. On the evidence of inscriptions, only around ten to twenty per cent of them were of European origin, mainly Spanish;

10586-507: The mathematics of construction. There is good evidence of this from emperors Augustus , Hadrian and Trajan , who all held engineers responsible for both construction and the military. There were not always many of these talented men in Northern Africa so it was important to train other men for the job. Thus over time the army became a place to learn the technical skills of engineering and surveying. These men would become involved in

10720-664: The most successful Roman generals : his conquests of Pannonia , Dalmatia , Raetia , and (temporarily) parts of Germania laid the foundations for the empire 's northern frontier. Early in his career, Tiberius was happily married to Vipsania , daughter of Augustus's friend, distinguished general and intended heir, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . They had a son, Drusus Julius Caesar . After Agrippa died, Augustus insisted that Tiberius divorce Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' own daughter (Tiberius's step-sister) Julia . Tiberius reluctantly gave in. This second marriage proved scandalous, deeply unhappy, and childless; ultimately, Julia

10854-614: The position of Princeps , he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defence of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself , giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops. The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in

10988-558: The position of quaestor , and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law. Similar provisions were made for Drusus. Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius went east to join Augustus . The Parthian Empire had previously captured

11122-416: The powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus's own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval. However, according to Suetonius , after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from AD 10–12, "Tiberius returned and celebrated

11256-426: The principle of Hippodamus , the grid layout. The few remains in modern time include just a few pieces of architecture: the arch to Caracalla , a temple to Minerva and ruins of an amphitheater. On the arch "medallions of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna still survive on its faces" and the temple is "…one of the three or four best-preserved temples of the Roman world," says John Ferguson, archaeologist, who explored

11390-496: The procurator. They also had baths and an amphitheater outside the camp. After some time civilians began to settle close by, but their area was marked off by an arch. One veteran town from the Third Augustan Legion (and actually other legions in the Empire) was Thuburbo Majus . Here colonies were arranged granting veterans with, at the most, ¾ an acre of land. Although they were considered retired, these veterans were still involved in

11524-440: The protection of the provinces. Therefore, their colonies were spread out according to the Legion's strategic plan, and members actually guarded the areas. They sometimes built towers or ditches to be even more secure. Regardless of the militaristic constructions in the town, there were still beautiful public buildings such as a forum, mosaic floors, baths, churches and temples. Another town founded by Nerva especially for veterans

11658-588: The province of Baetica in 422 AD under their king, Gunderic , and, from there, they carried out raids on Mauretania Tingitana. In 427 AD, the Comes Africae , Bonifacius, rejected an order of recall from the Emperor Valentinian III , and he defeated an army sent against him. He was less fortunate when a second force was sent in 428 AD. In that year, Gunderic was succeeded by Gaiseric, and Bonifacius invited Gaiseric into Africa, providing

11792-592: The reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: Tacitus , Suetonius , Cassius Dio and Marcus Velleius Paterculus . Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder , Strabo and Seneca the Elder . Philo of Alexandria speaks briefly of Tiberius's reign in Embassy to Gaius . Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost. Mauretania Tingitana other political entities Mauretania Tingitana ( Latin for " Tangerine Mauretania ")

11926-498: The rest were local. Roman historians (like Ptolemy ) considered all of Morocco north of the Atlas Mountains part of the Roman Empire, because in the times of Augustus , Mauretania was a vassal state and its rulers (like Juba II ) controlled all the areas south of Volubilis. The effective control of Roman legionaries, however, was up to the area of Sala Colonia (the castra "Exploratio Ad Mercurios", south of Sala Colonia ,

12060-409: The rest were positioned based on the military needs of that time. The Emperor Vespasian reunited the legion in a single fortress at Theveste , most likely in 75. In 115 or 120, the Legio III Augusta established their camp at Lambaesis where it remained for two centuries apart from the period 238–253. The legion was disbanded in 238 AD "because of its role in putting down an African-based revolt against

12194-420: The result of post-traumatic stress disorder . Proponents of this theory believe the tales of Tiberius's lurid sexual exploits were contemporary exaggerations of sexual compulsivity as a means of coping with untreated trauma. Other modern diagnoses offered for Tiberius include obsessive compulsive personality disorder and Schizoid personality disorder ; the latter diagnoses was offered by Gregorio Marañón in

12328-410: The revolutionary techniques of Tacfarinas' band of robbers and ex-soldiers to succeed in conquering Tacfarinas. The guerrilla warfare strategies that Tacfarinas displays are one of the many ways the Third Augustan Legion had to alter its defense techniques in order to settle rebels throughout North Africa. The Musulamii gang under leadership and control of Tacfarinas was just one example of rebellions that

12462-448: The right measurement causing them to be completely off the intended line. It was up to Datus to fix the situation. The surveyors knew how to properly construct these aqueducts. If they stayed to monitor the actual construction, the operation ran successfully. This can be witnessed by the vast number of aqueducts that stood hundreds of years, some of them even thousands. For example, the water springs from Jebel Zaghouan still bring water all

12596-414: The road is indicated by the number of forts built along it. Some Emperors really encouraged building of roads. One in particular was Hadrian. He was deeply involved with the work of the Legio III Augusta and sought to make sure they were involved in building projects. the advantages of building roads was not restricted to military matters but provided economic incentives positive for the empire: For example,

12730-720: The roads in repair throughout the period of military anarchy. The Legion built and fortified Lambaesis and a military colony at Thamugadi , which was settled largely by veterans of the legion. As was the case throughout the empire, soldiers of the Third Augustan Legion were forbidden to marry. A mobile army might have been in state of forced celibacy but this was not possible or practical for soldiers in fixed frontier posts. Inscriptions from Lambaesis often mention women companions of soldiers, which indicate that although they did not marry during active duty, they did form relationships with local women. 1. John Hartwell, unlike many other creators of Legion websites, provides an accessible outline of

12864-468: The same hairstyle. Suetonius describes his eyes as being larger than average, while a passage in Pliny indicates they were grey or blue-grey; polychromy restoration on a bust of Tiberius depict him with grey eyes and hair. Suetonius reports he tended to talk with his hands , a habit others found unnerving, and which Augustus saw as an inherent character flaw. Both Cassius Dio and Tacitus record that by

12998-501: The so-called "Portuguese cisterns". Pliny the Elder described in some detail the area south of the Atlas Mountains, when Gaius Suetonius Paulinus undertook a military expedition in 41: Suetonius Paulinus, whom we have seen Consul in our own time, was the first Roman general who advanced a distance of some miles beyond Mount Atlas. He has given us the same information as we have received from other sources with reference to

13132-557: The sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius's own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus , were possibly candidates. However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula a quaestor , and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come. Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March AD 37, months before his 78th birthday. While ancient sources agree on

13266-458: The son of his brother Nero Claudius Drusus and Augustus's niece Antonia Minor . Along with his adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus's maius imperium , something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had. In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus , a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa , to live in solitary confinement. Thus, when in AD 13,

13400-610: The sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them. However, Tacitus's portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A History of the Roman World : In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius's reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while

13534-441: The state. As Tacitus vividly describes, Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted

13668-674: The structure of the frontier through cultural changes and their mere presence throughout Africa. However, the legion was self-sufficient in protecting the African provinces for the majority of the time. Most threats that required reinforcements arose in Mauretania, as this was where the Moors were the most dangerous. The Third Augustan had around 5000–6000 men with about 10,000–15,000 auxiliary men stationed close by. Almost half of these soldiers were stationed in Mauretania Tingitana ;

13802-595: The territory between the Rhine and the Elbe . They took control of the Teutoburg forest , where three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus , had been annihilated by Germanic tribes several years before. Germanicus took back the legionary standards lost in that disaster, saving them from the disgrace of captivity. These bold and successful actions increased Germanicus's already high popular standing. After his return to Rome, Germanicus

13936-543: The time he became Emperor, Tiberius had gone bald. Tacitus further reports that the Emperor had lost most of his body fat and become abnormally thin, although he retained his physical strength. He also contracted a disfiguring facial ailment which may have been a severe case of herpes , an outbreak of which affected the Empire during his reign; Tiberius banned kissing at public functions in an effort to curtail its spread. Tacitus believed that embarrassment over his baldness and

14070-490: The town. They even paved a courtyard that was surrounded by porticos with rooms on three sides. Some of these rooms were just for the military guards and the Commander-in-chief. The fourth side consisted of a basilica. Probably one of the most "impressive" and "the most dominant memorials of Roman military might" was the praetorium built in Lambaesis. This praetorium served as the house of the commander — most likely

14204-414: The town. This made the area even more beauteous. Thamugadi, or modern Timgad , was a town founded for the sole purpose of resettling veterans. Original inhabitants were given a small plot of land inside the city to build on and a small plot of land outside the city to farm. The city grew rapidly, fueled by the security provided by the nearby army camp and the economic prosperity of the mid-2nd century. Over

14338-453: The tribes. Originally they built their camp to be about 220 square yards following the same grid plan as they did at Theveste. As historian E. Lennox Manton describes the construction, he says it was built "to a rectangular plan with military precision." By the middle of the 2nd century, the town grew perhaps to four times its original size. Throughout their stay at Lambaesis, columns, pillars with rounded niches and statues were all built around

14472-501: The triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies." "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on

14606-402: The tunnel would need to be excavated. This he gave to the procurator. He even gave the information to the contractor to be sure everything was done correctly. As Datus' skills were so widely needed, he had to leave the Legion for four years expecting the construction would go along smoothly without him. The construction did not go according to plan. The legionaries were unable to dig the tunnels at

14740-515: The way to Tunis. Historian E. Lennox Manton says, "A large new pipeline takes it through those same conduits in the hills which were originally excavated by the legion." Although the pipping system was changed, the original layout is still used. Augustus officially stationed his Third Legion in 30 BC at Ammaedara which was located in the Aures Mountains . There they protected the North African provinces for 105 years. Not much remains today, at

14874-489: The young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula . Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with. In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he

15008-542: Was Cuicul (now Djémila) , "the beautiful" in the 1st century. The Legion also helped protect this town just as in Thuburbo Majus . The town is located on a hill and the lower part was the original foundation. It was later extended up the hill as more and more commercial activity occurred. Originally, at the end of the 1st century, there was a forum built. This later became known as the North Forum because another

15142-607: Was Volubilis . This city was the administrative and economic center of the province in western Roman Africa. The fertile lands of the province produced many commodities such as grain and olive oil, which were exported to Rome, contributing to the province's wealth and prosperity. Archaeology has documented the presence of a Jewish community in the Roman period. The principal exports from Mauretania Tingitana were purple dyes and valuable timber . Tingitana also supplied Rome with agricultural goods and animals, such as lions and leopards. The native Mauri were highly regarded and recruited by

15276-515: Was a Roman province , coinciding roughly with the northern part of present-day Morocco . The territory stretched from the northern peninsula opposite Gibraltar , to Sala Colonia (or Chellah ) and Volubilis to the south, and as far east as the Mulucha (or Malva) river. Its capital city was Tingis , which is the modern Tangier . Other major cities of the province were Iulia Valentia Banasa , Septem , Rusadir , Lixus and Tamuda . After

15410-403: Was appointed as consul , and around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar , was born. Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus's request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder , Augustus's daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she

15544-415: Was awarded a full triumph , which he celebrated in AD 17. It was the first full triumph held since Augustus's own in 29 BC. In AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, like Agrippa and Tiberius before him. This was interpreted as a sign that he would be Tiberius's successor; but Germanicus died just over a year later, having accused Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso ,

15678-456: Was born. In 32 BC, Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra . In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium . In 23 BC, Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into even more civil conflict. Historians generally agree that it

15812-443: Was built in the 3rd century. The second forum included a beautiful temple to Septimius Severus. The staircase in the temple was wonderful, "…the most impressive flight of steps ever to be built to such an edifice in North Africa." There was a paved road that connected the two forums and upon walking, temples, buildings, homes and even the old market area could be seen. The wealthier veterans were able to construct baths and mosaics around

15946-467: Was built to replace the Lambaesis Gate—a monument built on the street that led to Lambeasis. The town itself was most likely a very clean place. There are many baths throughout, probably close to 12–14. Originally, the Legion was composed mainly of Italian soldiers, but by the 3rd century AD the legion was almost entirely of Punic and Libyan origin. Italy and Gaul were hard-pressed to cope with

16080-497: Was composed mainly of robbers and rebels. However, Tacfarinas' band of robbers soon gained the expertise and precision of the Roman Army. Tacfarinas traveled through North Africa collecting Roman soldiers left behind by the Third Augustan Legion; Tacitus describes this process as a "cherry picking " of sorts, using soldiers who had already been trained by the Roman army and using their skills against their creator. Tacfarinas created

16214-520: Was considered healthy by Roman standards; in the legions he earned the nickname "Biberius" (from bibere , "to drink"). This has led modern writers to conclude he probably suffered from alcoholism . As the Julio-Claudian Emperor who saw the most frontlines combat, and the one who actually led troops into battle, modern writers have concluded Tiberus' erratic and paranoid behavior later in life, as well as his alcohol intake, may have been

16348-870: Was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) and control in the East, positions that Agrippa had held before him. In 6 BC, while on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes . The motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear. Some historians have speculated that Tiberius and Drusus were only ever intended as caretakers, and would have been swept aside once Julia's two sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius , were adopted as Augustus's heirs and came of age. The promiscuous, and very public behaviour of his unhappily married wife, Julia, may have also played

16482-579: Was later organised as the Exarchate of Africa , a special status in view of the outpost defense needs. There was also an indigenous principality in Tingitana which existed in the 6th and 7th centuries, attested for by inscriptions at Volubilis and the Mausoleum at Souk El Gour . When the Umayyad Caliphate conquered all of Northern Africa , it brought Islam to the local adherents of

16616-479: Was married, and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour. Suetonius claims that when Tiberius ran into Vipsania again, he followed her home crying and begging forgiveness. Soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again. Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus's death in 9 BC, seemed

16750-802: Was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus's death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive. Somewhat melodramatic stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness. Tiberius's response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes. Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests. With Tiberius's departure, succession rested solely on Augustus's two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with

16884-424: Was not always accepted or welcomed. Most notably in opposition to the Roman institution was Tacfarinas , a former Roman soldier turned Musulamii guerrilla leader. Tacfarinas is an example of the multiple rebellions against the expansion of the Roman Empire through military establishment and geographical positioning as well as the adequate and tactful response by the Third Augustan Legion. The Berber tribes attacked

17018-502: Was not large enough to support an entire legion; this suggests that the legion was split up. Desert warfare required a small and highly mobile fighting force and it was not unheard of for the emperor to split a legion into several vexillations and place them at separate fortresses. For the most part, whole legions were not moved into Africa but rather, small vexillations were formed from the armies of Germany and Pannonia and sent to help when needed. The Roman military presence in North Africa

17152-463: Was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla , though under pressure quickly withdrew the request. While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius, the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that. Sejanus began

17286-422: Was not very far—just a bit west of Ammaedara. They relocated for purely strategic reasons. It was believed that if they moved they would be closer to the enemy—the local tribes who had been uprising often. The Legion was dedicated to its protection so they wanted to make sure they were in the best place possible to do so. They settled the area and built their own town. This town was physically constructed according to

17420-511: Was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro . Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by

17554-420: Was sent into exile by her father. Tiberius adopted his nephew, the able and popular Germanicus , as heir. On Augustus's death in 14, Tiberius became princeps at the age of 55. He seems to have taken on the responsibilities of head of state with great reluctance and perhaps a genuine sense of inadequacy in the role, compared to the capable, self-confident and charismatic Augustus. From the outset, Tiberius had

17688-701: Was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul , conquering Raetia . In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube , and soon afterward the bend of the middle course. Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius

17822-461: Was still mentioned as late as the early 5th century but the actual date of its final disbandment is unknown. The Third Augustan Legion was not only a source of protection for the Roman Empire, but also largely responsible for the urbanization of the North African provinces. The Legion was initially stationed in Ammaedara (modern-day Haïdra ) where they built their first military camp. From there.

17956-408: Was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Germanicus's son Caligula , whose lavish building projects and varyingly successful military endeavours drained much of the wealth that Tiberius had accumulated in the public and Imperial coffers through good management. Tiberius allowed the worship of his divine Genius in only one temple, in Rome's eastern provinces, and promoted restraint in

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