72 BC
145-718: 71 BC The Third Servile War , also called the Gladiator War and the War of Spartacus by Plutarch , was the last in a series of slave rebellions against the Roman Republic known as the Servile Wars . This third rebellion was the only one that directly threatened the Roman heartland of Italy . It was particularly alarming to Rome because its military seemed powerless to suppress it. The revolt began in 73 BC, with
290-410: A bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily , where he intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. He was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves. Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure
435-502: A conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army continued northwards to the region around Mutina (modern Modena ). There, a Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers—led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul , Gaius Cassius Longinus —attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and was also defeated. Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in
580-538: A crowd turns violent, effectively becoming a "mob," it may execute physical attacks on people and property, such as by throwing homemade weapons like Molotov cocktails , firing small arms, and planting improvised explosive devices . A crowd may resort to throwing rocks , bricks, bottles, etc. If violence is pre-arranged, the crowd can hide their weapons or vandalism tools well before the crowd formation, catching law enforcement by surprise. Crowds may arm themselves with: A mob may erect barricades to impede, or prevent,
725-456: A crowd's mood, radicals can manipulate and weaponize a crowd, using skillful agitation to coax the crowd's capacity for violence and turn it into a vengeful mob , directing the crowd's aggression and resentment at the agitator's chosen target. Tactical agitators can leverage media, including social media , to connect with potential crowd members and incite them to break the law or provoke others, all without direct personal contact. Conversely,
870-490: A field commander under Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the civil war between Sulla and the Marian faction in 82 BC and had served under Sulla during the dictatorship that followed. Crassus was given a praetorship and assigned six new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus , giving him an estimated army of some 32,000–48,000 trained Roman infantry plus auxiliaries (there being quite
1015-430: A group to emerge when no authoritative voice emerges, and the crowd becomes frustrated without direction. Panic, which is extremely and quickly contagious, also affects crowd behavior by influencing their ability to reason, lending to frantic, irrational behavior that can not only endanger the crowd, but also others. During civil disorder, panic can set in when a crowd member realizes – A goal of violent demonstrators
1160-482: A man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield
1305-723: A modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original." Jacques Amyot 's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the Lives in 1559 and Moralia in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe. Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of
1450-518: A moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself. Plutarch's best-known work is the Parallel Lives , a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a historical account. The surviving Lives contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek life and one Roman life, as well as four unpaired single lives. As
1595-560: A more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius . As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania , which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates, the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. They initially viewed the revolt more as a major crime wave than an armed rebellion. However, later that year, Rome dispatched a military force under praetorian authority to put down
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#17327649200331740-443: A painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels between physical appearance and moral character . In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers . Some of the Lives , such as those of Heracles , Philip II of Macedon , Epaminondas , Scipio Africanus , Scipio Aemilianus and possibly Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no longer exist; many of
1885-437: A pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus . Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under the command of Crixus , near Mount Garganus and killed two-thirds of the rebels, including Crixus. At this point, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events, which do not correspond until
2030-459: A passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: " 'You ask me', said Plutarch, 'why Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of beasts... ' " Ralph Waldo Emerson and the transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the Lives "a bible for heroes". He also opined that it
2175-564: A priest of the Delphic temple , Plutarch was also a magistrate at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. Plutarch was epimeletes (manager) of the Amphictyonic League for at least five terms, from 107 to 127, in which role he
2320-411: A pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato . He adopted a second principle ( Dyad ) in order to explain the phenomenal world. This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it. Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of
2465-452: A range in the size of Republican legions). Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation within his army. Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the two consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander or whether he had his entire army decimated for a later defeat (an event in which up to 4,000 legionaries would have been executed). Plutarch only mentions
2610-502: A reflection of Roman fears. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes. It is not certain that the slaves were a homogeneous group under the leadership of Spartacus, although this is implied by the Roman historians. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned—Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus—and it cannot be told from
2755-476: A series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with The Fall of the Roman Republic , which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner. Penguin continues to revise the volumes. Note that only the main translations from the second half of 15th century are given. There are multiple translations of Parallel Lives into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for
2900-464: A skilled leader can calm or divert a crowd using strategic suggestions, commands, or appeals to reason, aiming to de-escalate a situation. Emotional contagion plays a significant role in crowd behaviour by fostering a sense of unity among its members. This unity can lead the crowd to adopt a mob mentality and engage in mob behaviour. Crowd members amplify each other's emotions, creating a heightened state of collective emotion. Ideas rapidly spread among
3045-417: A threat to law enforcers because it is open to manipulation. This is because the behavior of a crowd is under the direction of the majority of its members. While its members are usually inclined to obey the law, emotional stimuli, and the feeling of fearlessness that arises from being in a crowd, can cause crowd members to indulge in impulses, act on aggressions, and unleash rage . When law enforcement limits
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#17327649200333190-511: A watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet
3335-411: Is a later interpolation. Plutarch's treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of the former as having recently lived in his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not. Plutarch was either the uncle or grandfather of Sextus of Chaeronea who was one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius , and who may have been the same person as
3480-770: Is a single cause or a combination of causes; however, most are born from political grievances, economic disparities , social discord, but historically have been the result of long-standing oppression by a group of people towards another. Civil disorder arising from political grievances can include a range of events, from a simple protest to a mass civil disobedience. These events can be spontaneous, but can also be planned. These events can turn violent when agitators and law enforcers overreact. Civil disorder has in history arisen from economic disputes, political reasons (such as in opposition to oppressive or tyrannical government forces), religious opposition, racial oppression and social discord among various cases throughout history. Exploiting
3625-455: Is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer. According to Barrow (1967), Herodotus' real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance any criticism at all of the city-states that saved Greece from Persia. Barrow concluded that "Plutarch is fanatically biased in favor of
3770-567: Is dedicated to them. It is likely that a third son, named Soklaros after Plutarch's confidant Soklaros of Tithora, survived to adulthood as well, although he is not mentioned in Plutarch's later works; a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, who shares Plutarch's Latin family name, appears in an inscription in Boeotia from the time of Trajan . Traditionally, the surviving catalog of Plutarch's works is ascribed to another son, named Lamprias after Plutarch's grandfather; most modern scholars believe this tradition
3915-467: Is depicted at a relatively young age: His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils. A fragmentary hermaic stele next to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of
4060-494: Is explained in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander , Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of
4205-522: Is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and "Sayings of Spartans" and "Sayings of Spartan Women", rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of Lacedaemonia . While they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records); and even though he visited Sparta, many of
4350-543: Is heightened in which law enforcement agents are monolithic, across race and ethnicity, as law enforcement will become more susceptible to framing the disorder as a confrontation between "them" and "us." Actions by law enforcement agents, motivated by emotion and prejudice, is often used as evidence against their ill will toward a crowd, or a mob, with their behavior only further inflaming confrontation rather than reducing it. Under such situations, law enforcement agents are rarely held accountable for all their actions against
4495-503: Is high among law enforcement agents, they may breach their feeling of restraint and commit acts, against people in the mob, that they normally would suppress. The emotional atmosphere can also make them highly susceptible to rumors and fear. Like mob members, law enforcement agents, acting as a group, can also lose their sense of individuality and develop a feeling of anonymity. Under emotional instability, individual prejudices, that any individual law enforcement agent may harbor against
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4640-488: Is its close connection with religion. However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in
4785-438: Is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die." Life of Alexander The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores ). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including "Concerning
4930-506: Is not mentioned further in the histories. By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. Since the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about
5075-728: Is to spur law enforcers to take action that can be exploited as acts of brutality in order to generate sympathy for their cause, and/or to anger and demoralize the opposition. Crowds can use a range of tactics to evade law enforcement or to promote disorder, from verbal assault to distracting law enforcers to building barricades. The more well-planned tactics occur, the more purposeful the disorder. For example, crowds may form human blockades to shut down roads, they may trespass on government property, they may try to force mass arrests, they may handcuff themselves to things or to each other, or they may lock arms, making it more difficult to separate them, or they might create confusion or diversions through
5220-556: Is unique on the early Roman calendar . Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippos , Alexander's favourite sculptor , to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As
5365-661: The Battle of Picenum somewhere in the Picenum region and were defeated again. Appian claims that at this point Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome—implying this was Spartacus' goal following the confrontation in Picenum—as "he did not consider himself ready as yet for that kind of a fight, as his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him but only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff". Spartacus decided to withdraw into southern Italy again. The serviles seized
5510-699: The Flavian dynasty or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98). There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work." Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes II (the biographies of Hesiod , Pindar , Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in Galba-Otho
5655-422: The Lives in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek. Plutarch's Lives were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete Moralia was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603. In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the Lives by several hands and based on
5800-465: The Lives . Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost. Plutarch's general procedure for the Lives was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of
5945-631: The Moralia include "Whether One Who Suspends Judgment on Everything Is Condemned to Inaction", "On Pyrrho 's Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the Pyrrhonians and the Academics ". "The soul , being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in
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6090-576: The Roman Senate , taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome . This changed with the Third Servile War. In the Roman Republic of the 1st century BC, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for
6235-553: The Temple of Apollo in Delphi . He is known primarily for his Parallel Lives , a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and Moralia , a collection of essays and speeches. Upon becoming a Roman citizen , he was possibly named Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος ). Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of Chaeronea , about 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Delphi , in
6380-440: The economy . Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a variety of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through military conquest. With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, from tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves at a time were imported into the Roman economy from various European and Mediterranean acquisitions. While there
6525-771: The 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institute in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, Roman Lives , first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of Coriolanus , Fabius Maximus , Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus , Cato the Elder and Cato the Younger , Gaius Marius , Sulla , Sertorius , Lucullus , Pompey , Crassus , Cicero , Julius Caesar , Brutus , and Mark Anthony . The second volume, Greek Lives , first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of
6670-472: The Alps. While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to be any direct evidence to support it. Fictional accounts sometimes portray the rebelling slaves as ancient Roman freedom fighters , struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Although this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that
6815-888: The Amphictyony" ( "Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν | τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι "). Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks. Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius . Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore), as well as Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors' biographies were probably published under
6960-737: The Decline of the Oracles", "On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance", and "On Peace of Mind"; and lighter fare, such as " Odysseus and Gryllus", a humorous dialogue between Homer 's Odysseus and one of Circe 's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's life. Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature
7105-534: The Delphic maxims actually originated from only five genuine wise men. There was a portrait bust dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in helping to revive the Delphic shrines. The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the Archaeological Museum of Delphi , dates to the 2nd century; due to its inscription, in the past it had been identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded,
7250-520: The Elder , Mark Antony , and Marcus Junius Brutus . Plutarch's Life of Alexander , written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great . It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius , the putative second king of Rome, holds much that
7395-832: The Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon" (a dialogue on the possible causes for such an appearance and a source for Galileo's own work), "On Fraternal Affection" (a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other), "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great " (an important adjunct to his Life of the great king), and "On the Worship of Isis and Osiris " (a crucial source of information on ancient Egyptian religion ); more philosophical treatises, such as "On
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#17327649200337540-408: The Greek cities; they can do no wrong." The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the Lives and what would be considered parts of the Moralia have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us. The Romans loved
7685-504: The Greek region of Boeotia . His family was long established in the town; his father was named Autobulus and his grandfather was named Lamprias . His name is a compound of the Greek words πλοῦτος , ( ' wealth ' ) and ἀρχός , ( ' ruler, leader ' ). In the traditional aspirational Greek naming convention the whole name means something like "prosperous leader". His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in
7830-674: The Prince") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation. In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated De capienda ex inimicis utilitate ( wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan , Leipzig). The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas (1776–1780). Plutarch's Lives and Moralia were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser : Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's Parallel Lives published in
7975-474: The Pythian oracle at Delphia: one of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse" ( "Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν" ). Even more important is the dialogue "On the 'E' at Delphi" ( "Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς" ), which features Ammonius , a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother. According to Ammonius, the letter E written on
8120-469: The Roman militia and even to trained Roman legions under consular command. This army of slaves roamed across Italy , raiding estates and towns with relative impunity, sometimes dividing into separate but connected bands with several leaders, including the famous former gladiator Spartacus . The Roman Senate grew increasingly alarmed at the slave-army's depredations and continued military successes. Eventually Rome fielded an army of eight legions under
8265-599: The Roman legions to retreat in disarray. Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the death of Crixus , forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators. Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement". The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northwards. The consuls again engaged Spartacus at
8410-547: The Senate simply took advantage of Pompey's return to Italy but Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus. The Senate also sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly thought by Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus , commander of the forces engaged in the Third Mithridatic War but who appears to have been the proconsul of Macedonia , Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus ,
8555-474: The Spartacist forces and was routed. Despite this initial loss, Crassus engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels. The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several more engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina . According to Plutarch , Spartacus made
8700-678: The Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He
8845-667: The ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw what he wrote about. Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy , Stanley Burstein , Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined." Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change." Thus,
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#17327649200338990-447: The audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss Cinna's daughter, Cornelia . Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers. His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such
9135-408: The biographies of Lycurgus , Aristides , Cimon , Pericles , Nicias , Lysander , Agesilaus , Pelopidas , Dion , Timoleon , Demosthenes , Alexander the Great , Eumenes , and Phocion . Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon , Themistocles , and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai. The third volume, Greek and Roman Lives , published in 1973, presented
9280-465: The blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into
9425-404: The borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region, Appian claims it occurred near the region of Samnium ). Crassus detached two legions under his legate , Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked
9570-442: The cliffs on the side of the mountain opposite Glaber's forces. They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's men. A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius , was then dispatched against Spartacus. For some reason, Varinius seems to have split his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius commanded some 2,000 men, but neither
9715-449: The command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius were destroyed when some of the escaped slaves turned to meet them. The rebel slaves were not a professional army and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any farther and groups of men were breaking away from the main force to independently attack Crassus's legions. With discipline breaking down, Spartacus turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on
9860-526: The conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived. When Crassus refused, Spartacus and his army broke through the Roman fortifications and headed up the Bruttium peninsula with Crassus's legions in pursuit. The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – under the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the main army, killing 12,300. Even though Spartacus had lost many men, Crassus' legions had also suffered greatly. The Roman forces under
10005-550: The constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other. "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across
10150-559: The consulars Quintus Sosius Senecio , Titus Avidius Quietus , and Arulenus Rusticus , all of whom appear in his works. He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo . He probably took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries . During his visit to Rome, he may have been part of a municipal embassy for Delphi : around the same time, Vespasian granted Delphi various municipal rights and privileges. In addition to his duties as
10295-534: The contests, several training schools, or ludi , were established throughout Italy. In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals—who were considered slaves —were taught the skills required to fight in gladiatorial games. In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized kitchen implements ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from
10440-620: The crowd than its concern for law and authority, leading to unlawful and disruptive acts. Once the crowd engages in such acts, it effectively becomes a mob – a highly emotional, unreasonable, potentially violent crowd. Crowd behavior is the emotional needs, fears, and prejudices of the crowd members. It is driven by social factors such as the strength, or weakness, of leadership, moral perspective, or community uniformity, and also by psychological factors of suggestion e.g. imitation, anonymity, impersonality, emotional release, emotional contagion, panic, etc. During civil disorder, any crowd can be
10585-446: The decimation of 50 legionaries of one cohort as punishment after Mummius' defeat in the first confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus. Regardless of events, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy" and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander. When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on
10730-413: The destiny of his murderers, just after a detailed account of the scene when a phantom appeared to Brutus at night. Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BCE, for which both Dionysius ' and Livy 's texts are lost. "It is not histories I am writing, but lives ; and in the most glorious deeds there
10875-440: The effectiveness of law enforcement. For example, they may use grappling hooks , chains, rope, or vehicles to breach gates or fences. They may use sticks or poles to limit law enforcement's use of billy clubs and bayonets . They may overturn civilian vehicles to impede troops advancing to engage them or vandalize law enforcement vehicles to try to spark over-reaction from law enforcement or to incite further lawlessness from
11020-441: The entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events. Neither account directly contradicts the other but simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account and reporting events that are unique to that account. According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus
11165-480: The escape of around 70 slave gladiators from a gladiator school in Capua . They easily defeated the small Roman force sent to recapture them, and within two years, they had been joined by some 120,000 men, women, and children. The able-bodied adults of this large group were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand or defeat the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols to
11310-472: The former's younger brother. With Pompey's legions marching from the north and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium , Crassus realized that if he did not put down the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would go to the general who arrived with reinforcements and he spurred his legions on to end the conflict quickly. Hearing of the approach of Pompey, Spartacus tried to negotiate with Crassus to bring
11455-473: The full realization of these actions, the crowd will channel this hostility elsewhere, making the crowd a hostile and unpredictable threat to law enforcers. Crowds want to be directed, and can become frustrated by confusion and uncertainty; therefore, leadership can have a profound influence on the intensity and conduct of a crowd's behavior. The first person to authoritatively direct a crowd will likely be followed. Opportunity for radicals to take charge of
11600-437: The games of Delphi where the emperor Nero competed and possibly met prominent Romans, including future emperor Vespasian . Plutarch and Timoxena had at least four sons and one daughter, although two died in childhood. The loss of his daughter and a young son, Chaeron, are mentioned in his letter to Timoxena. Two sons, named Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in a number of Plutarch's works; Plutarch's treatise on Plato's Timaeus
11745-454: The goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of the actions of rebel leaders, who themselves committed numerous atrocities, seem specifically aimed at ending slavery. Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself—although this may have been no more than
11890-414: The group and to bystanders and mass media . When emotional contagion prevails, raw emotion is high while self-discipline is low. Personal prejudices and unsatisfied desires – usually restrained – are unabashedly released. This incentivizes crowd membership, as the crowd provides cover for individuals to do things they want to do, but would not dare try to do alone. This incentive can become greater for
12035-429: The harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus that destroyed the army of slaves in 71 BC. This happened after a long and bitter fighting retreat before the legions of Crassus and after the rebels realized that the legions of Pompey and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them. The armies of Spartacus launched their full strength against Crassus's legions and were utterly defeated. Of
12180-442: The historian Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review". The 19th century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity". Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it
12325-410: The historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people. In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul . The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius , dispatched
12470-521: The implied threat of their armed legions encamped outside the city. It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to changes in attitudes toward, use of, and legal rights accorded to Roman slaves. However, the end of the Servile Wars seems to have coincided with the end of the period of the most prominent use of slaves in Rome and the beginning of a new perception of slaves within Roman society and law. Certainly
12615-473: The implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . To varying degrees throughout Roman history , the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the form of slaves was an important factor in
12760-501: The individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E). Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in Galba-Otho Plutarch reveals
12905-399: The introduction to his own Life of Samuel Johnson . Other admirers included Ben Jonson , John Dryden , Alexander Hamilton , John Milton , Edmund Burke , Joseph De Maistre , Mark Twain , Louis L'amour , and Francis Bacon , as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning . Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in
13050-461: The legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated it, seized the Roman supplies and equipment, then pushed into northern Italy. After this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome. Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum. Plutarch then goes on to detail
13195-541: The legions of Crassus. All 6,000 were crucified along the Appian Way from Rome to Capua . Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion; both returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead camping outside Rome. Both men stood for the consulship of 70 BC, even though Pompey was ineligible because of his youth and lack of service as praetor or quaestor . Both men were elected consul for 70 BC, partly due to
13340-542: The legions. In this last stand, the Battle of the Silarius River , Spartacus' forces were routed, the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield. All the ancient historians stated that Spartacus was also killed on the battlefield but his body was never found. The rebels of the Third Servile War were annihilated by Crassus. Pompey's forces did not directly engage Spartacus's forces but his legions moving from
13485-574: The lowest—and most numerous—grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor. The large size and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious civil disturbances by
13630-475: The mob, in returning fire, any innocent casualties resulting from the chaos usually make law enforcement look undisciplined and oppressive. According to the U.S. Code , a person is engaged in civil disorder if he or she - (1) "...teaches or demonstrates to any other person the use, application, or making of any firearm or explosive or incendiary device , or technique capable of causing injury or death to persons, knowing or having reason to know or intending that
13775-421: The mob, or against individual participants of the mob, may influence the behavior of the law enforcement agent. Like the mob, these conditions make law enforcement actors more likely to imitate the behavior of each other, which can result in a chain of biased, excessive, or otherwise, dangerous, behavior in which law enforcement agents act upon mob agents as impersonal threats and not as human beings. Such action
13920-429: The mob. Mobs often employ fire, smoke, or hidden explosive devices e.g. strapped to animals, masked in cigarette lighters or toys, rigged to directed vehicles, etc. Not only can these devices be used to create confusion or diversion, but they can also be used to destroy property, mask looting of mob participants, or provide cover for mob participants firing weapons at law enforcement. If law enforcement engages with
14065-598: The most affectionate terms. Rualdus , in his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus , recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation. Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy in Athens under Ammonius from AD 66 to 67. He attended
14210-465: The movement of any article or commodity in commerce or the conduct or performance of any federally protected function. " Like mob participants, law enforcers are also susceptible to crowd behavior. Such tense confrontation can emotionally stimulate them, creating a highly emotional atmosphere all around. This emotional stimulation can become infectious throughout law enforcement agents, conflicting with their disciplined training. When emotional tension
14355-595: The narrative progresses, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of Cleitus the Black , which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end. Together with Suetonius 's The Twelve Caesars , and Caesar 's own works de Bello Gallico and de Bello Civili , the Life of Caesar is the main account of Julius Caesar 's feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of
14500-427: The north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew". After this action, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, saying that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus. While most of the rebel slaves were killed on the battlefield, some 6,000 survivors were captured by
14645-635: The original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1813. From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, Bernadotte Perrin , produced a new translation of the Lives for the Loeb Classical Library . The Moralia is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors. Penguin Classics began
14790-612: The original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is Modern Library . Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, ISBN 0-85229-163-9 , 1952, LCCN 55-10323 . In 1770, English brothers John and William Langhorne published "Plutarch's Lives from
14935-466: The parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his Lives which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of Parallel Lives , Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas , and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as Augustus , Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever. Lost works that would have been part of
15080-551: The philosopher Sextus Empiricus . His family remained in Greece down to at least the fourth century, producing a number of philosophers and authors. Apuleius , the author of The Golden Ass , made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch. Plutarch was a vegetarian , although how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear. He wrote about the ethics of meat-eating in two discourses in Moralia . At some point, Plutarch received Roman citizenship . His sponsor
15225-460: The popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history." There are translations, from the original Greek , in Latin , English , French , German , Italian , Polish and Hebrew . British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes "One advantage to
15370-457: The rebellion. A Roman praetor , Gaius Claudius Glaber , gathered a force of 3,000 men, not regular legions , but a militia "picked up in haste and at random, for the Romans did not consider this a war yet, but a raid, something like an attack of robbery." Glaber's forces besieged the slaves on Mount Vesuvius , blocking the only known way down the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber
15515-574: The rebels could not cross to Sicily and their efforts were abandoned. Spartacus' forces retreated towards Rhegium , Crassus' legions following; upon arrival Crassus built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were under siege and cut off from their supplies. The legions of Pompey were returning to Italy, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania . Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements or whether
15660-421: The region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000. The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola , Nuceria , Thurii and Metapontum . The victories of the rebel slaves did not come without a cost. At some time during these events, one of their leaders, Oenomaus , was lost—presumably in battle—and
15805-606: The reign of Emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 AD) and with them ended the supply of plentiful and inexpensive slaves through military conquest. This era of peace further promoted the use of freedmen as laborers in agricultural estates. The legal status and rights of Roman slaves also began to change. During the time of Emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54 AD), a constitution was enacted that made the killing of an old or infirm slave an act of murder and decreed that if such slaves were abandoned by their owners, they became freedmen. Under Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161 AD), laws further extended
15950-565: The remaining Lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant Lives include those on Solon , Themistocles , Aristides , Agesilaus II , Pericles , Alcibiades , Nicias , Demosthenes , Pelopidas , Philopoemen , Timoleon , Dion of Syracuse , Eumenes , Alexander the Great , Pyrrhus of Epirus , Romulus , Numa Pompilius , Coriolanus , Theseus , Aemilius Paullus , Tiberius Gracchus , Gaius Gracchus , Gaius Marius , Sulla , Sertorius , Lucullus , Pompey , Julius Caesar , Cicero , Cato
16095-409: The remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of Demetrius , Pyrrhus , Agis and Cleomenes , Aratus and Artaxerxes , Philopoemen , Camillus , Marcellus , Flamininus , Aemilius Paulus , Galba and Otho , Theseus , Romulus , Numa Pompilius , and Poplicola . It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to
16240-415: The revolt had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before". The wealthy owners of the latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the large pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in sharecropping arrangements. With the end of Augustus ' reign (27 BC – 14 AD), the major Roman wars of conquest ceased until
16385-474: The rights of slaves, holding owners responsible for the killing of slaves, forcing the sale of slaves when it could be shown that they were being mistreated and providing a (theoretically) neutral third party to which a slave could appeal. While these legal changes occurred much too late to be direct results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman attitude toward slaves that evolved over decades. The Third Servile War
16530-461: The same will be unlawfully employed for use in, or in furtherance of, a civil disorder which may in any way or degree obstruct, delay, or adversely affect commerce or the movement of any article or commodity in commerce or the conduct or performance of any federally protected function; or... (2) ...transports or manufactures for transportation in commerce any firearm, or explosive or incendiary device, knowing or having reason to know or intending that
16675-405: The same will be used unlawfully in furtherance of a civil disorder; or... (3) ...commits or attempts to commit any act to obstruct, impede, or interfere with any fireman or law enforcement officer lawfully engaged in the lawful performance of his official duties incident to and during the commission of a civil disorder which in any way or degree obstructs, delays, or adversely affects commerce or
16820-465: The school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor. Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves— Crixus and Oenomaus —and Spartacus , who was said either to be a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions later condemned to slavery, or a captive taken by the legions. There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality. A Thraex
16965-409: The slaves include Thurii and Metapontum , which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria . This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus. Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italy, rather than escape over
17110-472: The soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it
17255-469: The spear". These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from Capua , and equip themselves with captured military equipment as well as their gladiatorial weapons. Sources are somewhat contradictory on the order of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to
17400-414: The spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian. As Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, it could be inferred that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew from Mutina into southern or central Italy for the winter of 72–71 BC. Why they might do so, when there
17545-502: The stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1). Galba-Otho was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's Parallel Lives as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes ' edition where Galba and Otho appear as Opera XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that Galba-Otho was from early on considered as an illustration of
17690-478: The strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appear to be known. These forces were also defeated by the army of escaped slaves: Cossinius was killed, Varinius was nearly captured, and the equipment of the armies was seized by the slaves. With these victories, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of
17835-534: The survivors, some 6,000 were crucified along the Appian Way . Plutarch 's account of the revolt suggests that the slaves simply wished to escape to freedom and leave Roman territory by way of Cisalpine Gaul . Appian and Florus describe the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves intended to capture the city of Rome. The Third Servile War had significant and far-reaching effects on Rome's broader history. Pompey and Crassus exploited their successes to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and
17980-555: The temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the Seven Sages of Greece , whose maxims were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple and were not seven but actually five: Chilon , Solon , Thales , Bias , and Pittakos . The tyrants Cleobulos and Periandros used their political power to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the E , which was used to represent the number 5, constituted an acknowledgement that
18125-652: The third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required. Civil disorder Civil disorder , also known as civil disturbance , civil unrest , civil strife , or turmoil , are situations when law enforcement struggle to maintain public order or tranquility. Any number of things may cause civil disorder, whether it
18270-510: The town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and iron (with which to manufacture more arms) and clashing occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated. Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from Appian's. According to Plutarch, after the battle between Gellius' legion and Crixus's men (whom Plutarch describes as "Germans") near Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged
18415-470: The troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things." Plutarch ("The Consolation", Moralia ) Plutarch
18560-489: The use of rock throwing , arson , or terrorist acts, giving leeway to law enforcers to be forceful or excessive while trying to remove them. Also, sometimes, terrorist elements are involved. Most participants of civil disorder engage on foot. However, organized efforts can often implore the use vehicles and wireless communication . Participants have been known to use scanners to monitor police frequencies or transmitters to sabotage law enforcement communications. If
18705-424: The vestments and ornaments of a consul. Some time c. AD 95 , Plutarch was made one of the two sanctuary priests for the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the site had declined considerably since the classical Greek period. Around the same time in the 90s, Delphi experienced a construction boom, financed by Greek patrons and possible imperial support. His priestly duties connected part of his literary work with
18850-439: The war propose contradictory theories. Many popular modern accounts of the war claim that there was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those under Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italy to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists as being raided by
18995-502: The way which had long been usual among the Stoics. His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it. The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically. Thus, Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition. Plutarch
19140-422: The world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil. He elevated God above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul. Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans. The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics
19285-411: Was Lucius Mestrius Florus , who was an associate of the new emperor Vespasian, as evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus. As a Roman citizen, Plutarch would have been of the equestrian order, he visited Rome some time c. AD 70 with Florus, who served also as a historical source for his Life of Otho . Plutarch was on familiar terms with a number of Roman nobles, particularly
19430-495: Was a Platonist , but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics , and in some details even to Stoicism despite his criticism of their principles. He rejected only Epicureanism absolutely. He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them. He was more interested in moral and religious questions. In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished
19575-557: Was a type of gladiator in Rome, so "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of gladiatorial combat in which he was trained. On the other hand, names nearly identical to Spartacus were recorded among five out of twenty Thracian Odrysae rulers of Bosporan kingdom beginning with Spartokos I the founder of the Spartocid dynasty . The name came from the Thracian words * sparas "spear, lance" and * takos "famous" and thus meant "renowned by
19720-551: Was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again." Book IV of the Moralia contains the Roman and Greek Questions (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as "Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?" (no. 91), and then suggests answers to them. In " On the Malice of Herodotus ", Plutarch criticizes
19865-512: Was apparently no reason for them not to escape over the Alps—Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch—is not explained. Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italy in early 71 BC. The Senate, alarmed at the apparently unstoppable rebellion, gave the task of putting it down to Marcus Licinius Crassus . Crassus had been
20010-436: Was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender. While the slaves lacked military training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local tools, and in their use of clever, unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman infantry. In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men made ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down
20155-670: Was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese Mencius : 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined. ' " Montaigne 's Essays draw extensively on Plutarch's Moralia and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. Essays contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works. James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in
20300-472: Was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italy. For the most part, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman republican period. Under Republican law, a slave was property, not a person. Owners could abuse, injure or even kill their own slaves without legal consequence. While there were many grades and types of slaves,
20445-676: Was responsible for organising the Pythian Games . He mentions this service in his work, Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs (17 = Moralia 792f). The Suda , a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria ; most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province. According to the 8th/9th-century historian George Syncellus , late in Plutarch's life, Emperor Hadrian appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea – which entitled him to wear
20590-507: Was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces attacking the city of Rome . After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul . The army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated it, turned and destroyed Gellius' army, forcing
20735-554: Was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword. Plutarch's life shows few differences from Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili ). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the De Bello Gallico and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works. In the final part of this life, Plutarch recounts details of Caesar's assassination . It ends by telling
20880-402: Was the last servile war and Rome did not see another slave uprising of this magnitude again. Plutarch Plutarch ( / ˈ p l uː t ɑːr k / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Πλούταρχος , Ploútarchos ; Koinē Greek : [ˈplúːtarkʰos] ; c. AD 46 – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at
21025-433: Was the teacher of Favorinus . Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature . Shakespeare paraphrased parts of Thomas North 's translation of selected Lives in his plays , and occasionally quoted from them verbatim. Jean-Jacques Rousseau quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 Emile, or On Education , a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces
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