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48-582: Dynasty XIII initially ruled from the Nile Delta to the second cataract of the Nile . However, the dynasty marked a period of decline and instability, with Dynasty XIV rising concurrently and the Hyksos Dynasty XV taking control shortly after. Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is usually considered Dynasty XIII's first pharaoh, and Merneferre Ay , while not the final pharaoh, was the last to occupy

96-423: A hot desert climate ( Köppen : BWh ) as the rest of Egypt, but its northernmost part, as is the case with the rest of the northern coast of Egypt which is the wettest region in the country, has relatively moderate temperatures, with highs usually not surpassing 31 °C (88 °F) in the summer. Only 100–200 mm (4–8 in) of rain falls on the delta area during an average year, and most of this falls in

144-413: A possible father. This is unlikely as Amenemhat IV was succeeded by his sister Sobekneferu and not directly by Sobekhotep I, suggesting that Amenemhat IV didn't have any children. Ryholt also proposes that the demarcation between the two dynasties reflects the rise of the independent 14th Dynasty in the eastern Delta, an event which, he proposes, occurred during Sobekneferu 's reign. As direct heirs to

192-423: A reign of 3 to 4 years c. 1800 BC and proposes that Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned c. 20 years later in 1780 BC. Dodson and Hilton similarly believe that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep predated Khaankhre Sobekhotep. After allowing discipline at the southern forts to deteriorate, the government eventually withdrew its garrisons and, not long afterward, the forts were reoccupied by the rising Nubian state of Kush . In

240-410: Is Wadi Tumilat . The Suez Canal is east of the delta and enters the coastal Lake Manzala in the north-east of the delta. To the north-west are three other coastal lakes or lagoons: Lake Burullus , Lake Idku and Lake Mariout . The Nile is considered to be an "arcuate" delta (arc-shaped), as it resembles a triangle or flower when seen from above. Some scholars such as Aristotle have written that

288-570: Is never encountered together with royal titulature, except in one rare instance in an inscription from Tell el-Dab'a mentioning an unknown king and describing him as a Hyksos. "Hyksos" was rather a generic term which is encountered separately from royal titulature, and in regnal lists after the end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself. In another instance, Khyan is thought to have used the title "Hyksos" early in his reign, and then abandoned it for traditional Egyptian titulature when he invaded

336-488: Is of unknown provenance. The chronological position of a number of attested rulers could not be conclusively determined due to a lack of evidence: Ryholt posits a ruler named "Sobkhotep I Sekhemre Khutawy" as the first king of this dynasty. This is now the dominant hypothesis in Egyptology and Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy is referred to as Sobekhotep I in this article. Ryholt thus credits Sekhemre Khutawy Sobkhotep I with

384-742: Is the delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea . It is one of the world's larger deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east; it covers 240 km (150 mi) of the Mediterranean coastline and is a rich agricultural region. From north to south the delta is approximately 160 km (100 mi) in length. The Delta begins slightly down-river from Cairo . [REDACTED] From north to south,

432-511: The 13th dynasty led to the discovery of a large adjoining hall which proved to contain 41 sealings showing the cartouche of the Hyksos ruler Khyan together with 9 sealings naming the 13th dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. The preserved contexts of these seals shows that Sobekhotep IV and Khyan were most likely contemporaries of one another. This could mean that the 13th dynasty did not control all of Egypt when Sobekhotep IV acceded to power, and that there

480-457: The 15th Dynasty are as follows: The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruling from Avaris , without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the north-east. The names and order of kings are uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of

528-587: The 15th Dynasty. Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi, but this is primarily because there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man: Apepi I, who ruled Egypt for 40+X years. This is also supported by this king's employment of

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576-544: The Canaanite origins of the dynasty. According to the Kamose stelae, the Hyksos imported "charriots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli , silver, turquoise , bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey". The Fifteenth Dynasty also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to the areas of Canaan and Syria . These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to

624-565: The Delta region. Outside of major cities, population density in the delta averages 1,000/km (2,600/sq mi) or more. Alexandria is the largest city in the delta with an estimated population of more than 4.5 million. Other large cities in the delta include Shubra El Kheima , Port Said , El Mahalla El Kubra , Mansura , Tanta , and Zagazig . During autumn , parts of the Nile River are red with lotus flowers . The Lower Nile (North) and

672-404: The Hyksos state in the Delta region simply took over Memphis and ended the 13th dynasty's kingdom. However, this analysis and the conclusions drawn from it are rejected by Egyptologist Robert Porter, who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV (a gap of c. 100 years exists between the two in conventional chronologies) and that the seals of a pharaoh were used long after his death. Thus

720-565: The Levant, or the enemies of Ramses II at the battle of Kadesh . This has generally been translated as "Western Asiatics" by Egyptologists. The term Hyksos was traditionally used to designate foreign chieftains, and more specifically "rulers of the Asiatics", already before the Fifteenth Dynasty and also after it. It was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth dynasty, and

768-626: The Mediterranean. A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level could affect about 6.6% of the total land cover area in the Nile Delta region. At 1 m (3 ft 3 in) sea level rise, an estimated 887 thousand people could be at risk of flooding and displacement and about 100 km (40 sq mi) of vegetation, 16 km (10 sq mi) wetland, 402 km (160 sq mi) cropland, and 47 km (20 sq mi) of urban area land could be destroyed, flooding approximately 450 km (170 sq mi). Some areas of

816-526: The Middle Kingdom capital of Itjtawy , and the last of the dynasty with a significant recorded reign. Ryholt (1997:190) argues that the 13th Dynasty lasted from 1803-1649 BC, lasting some 154 years. According to Ryholt, the 13th Dynasty had some continuity with the preceding 12th Dynasty. With the first pharaoh, Sobekhotep I , being the son of a certain Amenemhat, Ryholt proposes Amenemhat IV as

864-658: The Near East may especially be attributed to king Apophis . Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important. The relation of the Fifteenth Dynasty to Egyptian religious traditions was ambiguous, and they are said by commentators from the Eighteenth Dynasty that "they ruled without ackowledging Re ". The dynasty is recorded as having destroyed Egyptian monuments and removed Egyptian statuary for booty, as well as plundering royal tombs, Ahmose complaining that "pyramids have been torn down". Known rulers of

912-501: The Nile Delta discovered tombs from the Second Intermediate Period and burials from the Naqada II era. The burial site contained the remains of animals, amulets and scarabs carved from faience , round and oval pots with handles, flint knives, broken and burned pottery. All burials included skulls and skeletons in the bending position and were not very well-preserved. Records from ancient times (such as by Ptolemy ) reported that

960-433: The Nile Delta's agricultural land have been rendered saline as a result of sea level rise; farming has been abandoned in some places, while in others sand has been brought in from elsewhere to reduce the effect. In addition to agriculture , the delta's ecosystems and tourist industry could be negatively affected by global warming. Food shortages resulting from climate change could lead to seven million "climate refugees" by

1008-463: The Nile Delta: 30°54′N 31°7′E  /  30.900°N 31.117°E  / 30.900; 31.117 Dynasty XV The Fifteenth Dynasty was a foreign dynasty of ancient Egypt . It was founded by Salitis , a Hyksos from West Asia whose people had invaded the country and conquered Lower Egypt . The 15th, 16th, and 17th Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under

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1056-672: The Upper Nile (South) have plants that grow in abundance. The Upper Nile plant is the Egyptian lotus, and the Lower Nile plant is the Papyrus Sedge ( Cyperus papyrus ), although it is not nearly as plentiful as it once was, and is becoming quite rare. Several hundred thousand water birds winter in the delta, including the world's largest concentrations of little gulls and whiskered terns . Other birds making their homes in

1104-489: The archaeological record is sparse. The dynasty probably lasted for a period of about 108 years. The first king, also described as a Hyksos ( ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt , a " shepherd " according to Africanus ), led his people into an occupation of the Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris . These events put an end to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt . There is no evidence of conflict at that time however, and

1152-556: The delta had seven distributaries or branches, (from east to west): Modern Egyptologists suggest that in the Pharaonic era there were at a time five main branches: The first three have dried up over the centuries due to flood control , silting and changing relief, while the last two still exist today. The Delta used to flood annually , but this ended with the construction of the Aswan Dam . About 39 million people live in

1200-480: The delta include grey herons , Kentish plovers , shovelers , cormorants , egrets and ibises . Other animals found in the delta include frogs , turtles , tortoises , mongooses , and the Nile monitor . Nile crocodiles and hippopotamus , two animals which were widespread in the delta during antiquity, are no longer found there. Fish found in the delta include the flathead grey mullet and soles. The Delta has

1248-605: The delta is approximately 160 km (100 mi) in length. From west to east, it covers some 240 km (150 mi) of coastline. The delta is sometimes divided into sections, with the Nile dividing into two main distributaries , the Damietta and the Rosetta , flowing into the Mediterranean at port cities with the same name. In the past, the delta had several distributaries, but these have been lost due to flood control, silting and changing relief. One such defunct distributary

1296-476: The delta was constructed for agricultural purposes due to the drying of the region of Egypt. In modern day, the outer edges of the delta are eroding, and some coastal lagoons have seen increasing salinity levels as their connection to the Mediterranean Sea increases. Since the delta no longer receives an annual supply of nutrients and sediments from upstream due to the construction of the Aswan Dam ,

1344-410: The delta. Artifacts belonging to ancient sites have been found on the delta's coast. The Rosetta Stone was found in the delta in 1799 in the port city of Rosetta (an anglicized version of the name Rashid ). In July 2019 a small Greek temple, ancient granite columns, treasure-carrying ships, and bronze coins from the reign of Ptolemy II , dating back to the third and fourth centuries BC, were found at

1392-402: The discovery of an important early 12th dynasty Middle Kingdom administrative building in the eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper Egypt which was in continual use into the early Second Intermediate Period until the 17th dynasty, when its remains were sealed up by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 into the remains of the former 12th dynasty building which was also used in

1440-442: The end of the 21st century. Nevertheless, environmental damage to the delta is not currently one of Egypt's priorities. The delta's coastline has also undergone significant changes in geomorphology as a result of the reclamation of coastal dunes and lagoons to form new agricultural land and fish farms as well as the expansion of coastal urban areas. The Nile Delta forms part of these 10 governorates : Large cities located in

1488-489: The ground the temples of gods..." Their regime, called Dynasty XV , was claimed to have replaced Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of the country. However, recent archaeological finds at Edfu could indicate that the Hyksos 15th dynasty was already in existence at least by the mid-13th dynasty reign of king Sobekhotep IV . In a recently published paper in Egypt and the Levant , Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard and N. Ayers discuss

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1536-465: The group title, Second Intermediate Period . The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC. The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been Canaanite . Pharaoh Kamose is known to have referred to Apophis , one of the kings of the dynasty, as "Chieftain of Retjenu (i.e. Caanan )". The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty formed "the second Asiatic Kingdom in the Delta", covering an area which may have included Canaan itself, although

1584-449: The kings of the 12th Dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th Dynasty reigned from Memphis over Middle and Upper Egypt, all the way to the second cataract to the south. The power of the 13th Dynasty waned progressively over its 150 years of existence and it finally came to an end with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty , c. 1650 BC. In later texts, this dynasty is usually described as an era of chaos and disorder. However,

1632-537: The north, Lower Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos , a Semitic people from across the Sinai. An independent line of kings created Dynasty XIV that arose in the western Delta during later Dynasty XIII. According to Manetho , into this unstable mix came invaders from the east called the Hyksos who seized Egypt "without striking a blow; and having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities ruthlessly, razed to

1680-818: The occupation of the Nile Delta , where it replaced the Fourteenth Dynasty, the Fifteenth Dynasty expanded to occupy Memphis , leading to the fall of the Thirteenth Dynasty at Memphis. As Egyptian political power disintegrated at Memphis, new dynasties arose in the south, the Abydos Dynasty and the Sixteenth Dynasty at Thebes . The Fifteenth Dynasty at one point, after a period of about 20 years since its foundation, extended its rule as far south as Thebes , entering into conflict with Pharaoh Neferhotep III . The whole of Egypt

1728-543: The period may have been more peaceful than was once thought since the central government in Itj-tawy near the Faiyum was sustained during most of the dynasty and the country remained relatively stable. The period was undoubtedly characterized by decline, with a large number of kings with short reigns and only a few attestations. The true chronology of this dynasty is difficult to determine as there are few monuments dating from

1776-416: The period. Many of the kings' names are only known from odd fragmentary inscriptions or from scarabs . The names and order in the table are based on Dodson and Hilton and Ryholt. Following these kings, the remaining rulers of the 13th Dynasty are only attested by finds from Upper Egypt. This may indicate the abandonment of the old capital Itjtawy in favor of Thebes . Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event

1824-427: The sea, in some places amounting to 90 m (100 yd) a year. The low-lying Nile Delta area in particular is vulnerable to sea level rise associated with global warming . This effect is exacerbated by the lack of sediments being deposited since the construction of the Aswan Dam . If the polar ice caps were to melt, much of the northern delta, including the ancient port city of Alexandria , could disappear under

1872-474: The seals of Sobekhotep IV might not indicate that he was a contemporary of Khyan. Merneferre Ay was the last Egyptian ruler of the 13th Dynasty who is attested by objects in both Lower and Upper Egypt. Henceforth, his successors, from Merhotepre Ini on, are only attested in Upper Egypt. Nile Delta The Nile Delta ( Arabic : دلتا النيل , Delta an-Nīl or simply الدلتا , ad-Delta )

1920-456: The settling of the Canaanite populations could have occurred rather peacefully in the power vacuum left by the disintegration of the Fourteenth Dynasty. Subsequent relations with Egyptian polities, however, were marked with violent conflict. The people of Avaris in the Nile Delta were called "Aamu" by the Egyptians, which was also the term used to designate the inhabitants of Syria and

1968-420: The soils of the floodplains have become poorer, and large amounts of fertilizers are now used. Topsoil in the delta can be as much as 21 m (70 ft) in depth. People have lived in the Nile Delta region for thousands of years, and it has been intensively farmed for at least the last five thousand years. The delta was a major constituent of Lower Egypt, and there are many archaeological sites in and around

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2016-464: The sunken city of Heracleion , colloquially known as Egypt's Atlantis. The investigations were conducted by Egyptian and European divers led by the underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio . They also uncovered a devastated historic temple (the city's main temple) underwater off Egypt's north coast. In January 2019 archaeologists led by Mostafa Waziri working in the Kom Al-Khelgan area of

2064-554: The whole of Egypt. Only the first four kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are known to have used the naming "Hyksos", and after that royal titulature becomes purely Egyptian. Regular conflicts continued with the Egyptian dynasties to the south, the Sixteenth Dynasty , the Abydos Dynasty and the Seventeenth Dynasty , with short intervals of peace during which there were some relations with Nubia . Soon after

2112-488: The winter months. The delta experiences its hottest temperatures in July and August, with a maximum average of 34 °C (93 °F). Winter temperatures normally range from 9 °C (48 °F) at nights to 19 °C (66 °F) in the daytime. With cooler temperatures and some rain, the Nile Delta region becomes quite humid during the winter months. Egypt's Mediterranean coastline experiences significant loss of land to

2160-405: Was a significant overlap between the 13th and 15th dynasties since Sobekhotep IV was only a mid-13th dynasty ruler; although one of its most powerful kings. Therefore, Manetho's statement that the Hyksos 15th dynasty violently replaced the 13th dynasty could be a piece of later Egyptian propaganda. Rather, the 13th dynasty's authority must have been collapsing throughout Egypt in its final decades and

2208-407: Was conquered during the reign of Khayan . The Abydos Dynasty also vanished on the occasion of these southern conquests. Numerous monuments from conquered areas were brought north to the capital of Avaris , and many were marked with additional inscriptions, especially by Apophis . All of this is contested however. For Alexander Ilin-Tomich, the territory directly ruled by the Hyksos kings of Avaris

2256-496: Was likely confined to the eastern Delta and the nature and extent of their control over Middle Egypt remains unclear. The Fifteenth Dynasty eventually ended with the conquest of Avaris by the Pharaoh Ahmose I . The trading relations of the Fifteenth Dynasty were mainly with Canaan and Cyprus . Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected

2304-547: Was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers. For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. This analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi , reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. The stele

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