71-401: Thomas Hughes QC (20 October 1822 – 22 March 1896) was an English lawyer, judge, politician and author. He is most famous for his novel Tom Brown's School Days (1857), a semi-autobiographical work set at Rugby School , which Hughes had attended. It had a lesser-known sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford (1861). Hughes had numerous other interests, in particular as a Member of Parliament, in
142-713: A KC in Scotland in 1948. In Australia, the first QC appointed was Roma Mitchell , appointed 1962, who later became the first female Justice of the Supreme Court of South Australia (1965), and then the first female Acting Chief Justice. In 1994, solicitors of England and Wales became entitled to gain rights of audience in the higher courts, and some 275 were so entitled in 1995. In 1995, these solicitors became entitled to apply for appointment as Queen's Counsel. The first two solicitors were appointed on 27 March 1997, out of 68 new QCs. These were Arthur Marriott, partner in
213-555: A junior barrister, and led the direction of the case. The junior barrister on a case could not disagree with the direction determined by the senior barrister. On colonial appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , established in 1833, the rule originally was that the case had to be led by a Queen's Counsel from England, even if the colonial counsel held the same rank in the colonial courts. This rule
284-474: A junior barrister, and they had to have barristers' chambers in London. These restrictions had a number of consequences: they made the taking of silk something of a professional risk, because the appointment abolished some of the staple work of the junior barrister; they made the use of leading counsel more expensive, and therefore ensured that they were retained only in more important cases; and they protected
355-476: A major contribution to the law of England and Wales but who operate outside court practice. Until the 1990s there was a practice that sitting members of the UK Parliament (MPs) who were barristers were appointed QC, if they wished, on reaching a certain level of seniority of around fifteen years at the bar. Such appointments were sometimes known as "courtesy" or even "false" silk, and also as "nylons". In
426-557: A patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, and formally styled King's Counsel in 1603. The right of precedence before the Court granted to Bacon became a hallmark of the early King's Counsel. True to their name, King's and Queen's Counsel initially were representatives of the Crown. The right of precedence and pre-audience bestowed upon them – a form of seniority that allowed them to address
497-475: A preparatory public school near Winchester, where he remained until the age of eleven. In February 1834 he went to Rugby School , which was then under the celebrated Thomas Arnold , a contemporary of his father at Oriel College, Oxford . Hughes excelled at sports rather than in scholarship, and his school career culminated in a cricket match at Lord's Cricket Ground . In 1842 he went on to Oriel College, and graduated BA in 1845. At Oxford, he played cricket for
568-511: A screening committee of members of the judiciary and the legal community, which submitted recommendations for appointment to the Minister of Justice and Solicitor General and Cabinet for consideration, who in turn recommends names to Cabinet. In 2020, the province designated over 130 lawyers as Queen's Counsel, and another round of appointees in February 2022. King's Counsel are appointed by
639-534: A supervisory role in litigation. In practice this meant that the practitioner would review and revise the written pleadings of their junior. Initially the status of QC was reserved first for law officers ( Lord Advocate and Solicitor General for Scotland ) and soon after for the Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. In 1897, a petition by the Faculty of Advocates for the establishment of a Scottish roll of Queen's Counsel
710-533: A vigorous campaign was mounted in defence of the system. Supporters included those who considered it as an independent indication of excellence to those (especially foreign commercial litigants) who did not have much else to go on, and those who contended that it was a means whereby the most able barristers from ethnic minorities could advance and overcome prejudice as well as better represent members of an increasingly diverse society. The government's focus switched from abolition to reform and, in particular, reform of
781-480: Is known informally as taking silk and KCs are often colloquially called silks . Appointments are made from within the legal profession on the basis of merit and not a particular level of experience. Successful applicants are normally barristers , or in Scotland, advocates , with at least 15 years of experience. In most Canadian jurisdictions, the designation is regulated by formal statute, such as, for example, "King's Counsel Act" of British Columbia, that requires
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#1732783061349852-779: Is made on the recommendation of the Lord Justice General to the First Minister of Scotland , formerly the Secretary of State for Scotland . In the 1990s, rules were changed so that solicitors with rights of audience in the Court of Session or High Court of Justiciary were permitted to apply for appointment, and two or three have done so. A solicitor advocate who is so appointed is designated as King's Counsel, Solicitor Advocate . An award of King's Counsel honoris causa (honorary KC) may be made to lawyers who have made
923-470: Is organised as the Faculty of Advocates and its members are known not as barristers but as advocates. The position of Queen's Counsel was not recognised before 1868. The Scottish bar did have a concept of senior counsel before the introduction of the formal rank of Queen's Counsel. An advocate would self-declare that they were 'giving up writing', meaning that they would no longer draft pleadings and move onto
994-582: The British co-operative movement , and in a settlement— Rugby, Tennessee , USA—reflecting his values. Hughes was the second son of John Hughes , editor of the Boscobel Tracts (1830), and was born in Uffington , Berkshire (now Oxfordshire). He had six brothers, and one sister, Jane Senior , who later became Britain's first female civil servant. At the age of eight he was sent to Twyford School ,
1065-491: The Elliott Report , that the royal oath should be dropped and replaced by a more neutral statement. It suggested that, instead of declaring services to Queen Elizabeth, barristers should "sincerely promise and declare that I will well and truly serve all whom I may lawfully be called to serve in the office of one of Her Majesty's Counsel, learned in the law according to the best of my skill and understanding". In 1997,
1136-915: The Law Society of British Columbia . A recipient must have at least five years' standing at the bar of British Columbia. In practice, the Attorney General appoints an advisory committee which includes these officials and also the Chief Judge of the Provincial Court , the president of the British Columbia Branch of the Canadian Bar Association and the deputy attorney general . Candidates must be acknowledged by their peers as leading counsel, have demonstrated exceptional qualities of leadership in
1207-607: The Lord Chancellor , but without comment on individual applications. The Lord Chancellor supervises the process and reviews the panel's recommendations in general terms (to be satisfied that the process as operated is fair and efficient). Application forms under the new system were released in July 2005 and the appointment of 175 new Queen's Counsel was announced on 20 July 2006. A total of 443 people had applied (including 68 women, 24 ethnic minority lawyers, and 12 solicitors). Of
1278-624: The Lord Chief Justice , Sir Robert Carswell , wrote "I have little doubt myself that this is all part of an ongoing politically-based campaign to have the office of Queen's Counsel replaced by a rank entitled Senior Counsel, or something to that effect". In 2000, the Northern Ireland High Court ruled in the barristers' favour. After more wrangling, the barristers were permitted to make "a more neutral statement" of commitment to principles. The independent bar
1349-574: The Oath of Supremacy , which Daniel O'Connell refused as a Roman Catholic . Despite being the most prominent and best-paid barrister in Ireland, he was a junior counsel for 30 years until granted a patent of precedence in 1831. From the beginning, KCs were not allowed to appear against the Crown without a special licence, but this was generally given as a formality. This stipulation was particularly important in criminal cases, which are mostly brought in
1420-614: The university team in the annual University Match against Cambridge University , also at Lord's, and a match still regarded as first-class cricket . Hughes was called to the bar in 1848, became Queen's Counsel in 1869 and a bencher in 1870. He was appointed to a county court judgeship in the Chester district in July 1882. A committed social reformer, Hughes became involved in the Christian socialism movement led by Frederick Maurice , which he joined in 1848. In January 1854 he
1491-409: The 175 appointed, 33 were women, 10 were ethnic minorities, and four were solicitors. Six people were also appointed QC honoris causa . The title of KC continues to be used. In 1998 two Northern Ireland barristers ( Seamus Treacy and Barry Macdonald) opposed the requirement of swearing an oath of allegiance to the Crown. The Bar Council, the body which represents barristers' interests, had agreed, in
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#17327830613491562-482: The 1990s, it was felt that the practice of granting silk to MPs in this way, without considering their abilities, devalued the rank and the practice was abolished. However, for now the practice persists for law officers of the Crown. Former Attorney General for England and Wales Jeremy Wright was not a QC when he was appointed, a subject which attracted some comment. Despite not having practised law for some time, Wright took silk shortly after his appointment, which
1633-615: The 74 Senior Counsel appointed in Queensland before the reintroduction of Queen's Counsel in June 2013, only four opted to retain their title of Senior Counsel. In 2014, Victoria also restored the rank of Queen's Counsel, by way of making new appointments first as Senior Counsel, but then giving the option to seek appointment as Queen's Counsel by letters patent. In 2019, the South Australian Government announced it
1704-756: The Commonwealth Government followed over the next 15 years, including the ACT in 1995, Victoria in 2000, Western Australia in 2001, Tasmania in 2005, and South Australia in 2008. In the Northern Territory , the rank of King's Counsel was never formally abolished, but in 2007 the rules of the Territory's Supreme Court were amended to facilitate the appointment of Senior Counsel by the Chief Justice. Those appointed QC before
1775-735: The Great (1869) and the Memoir of a Brother . His brother, George Hughes , was the model for the Tom Brown character. In 1847, Hughes married Frances Ford, daughter of Rev. James Ford , and niece of Richard Ford , and they settled in 1853 at Wimbledon. Their house there was built by the North London Working Builders' Association, a Christian Socialist co-operative; and was shared with J. M. F. Ludlow and his family; Ludlow already shared barristers' chambers with Hughes, and
1846-672: The London office of the Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr , and Lawrence Collins , a partner in the City of London law firm Herbert Smith . Collins was subsequently appointed a High Court judge and ultimately a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom . The appointment of new Queen's Counsel was suspended in 2003, and it was widely expected that the system would be abolished. However,
1917-466: The Privy Council , that: The exact position occupied by a Queen's Counsel duly appointed is a subject which might admit of a good deal of discussion. It is in the nature of an office under the Crown, although any duties which it entails are almost as unsubstantial as its emoluments; and it is also in the nature of an honour or dignity to this extent, that it is a mark and recognition by the Sovereign of
1988-652: The Solicitor General. It is still the rule that junior counsel must follow the lead of senior counsel in pleading a case, and cannot depart from senior counsel's approach to the issues. The first woman appointed King's Counsel was Helen Kinnear in Canada in 1934. The first women to be appointed as King's Counsel in England and Wales were Helena Normanton and Rose Heilbron in 1949. They were preceded by Margaret Kidd KC (later Dame Margaret Kidd QC) appointed
2059-498: The appointment of Senior Counsel is not by letters patent, when a Senior Counsel takes office, there is no doctrinal reason why the title of Senior Counsel is lost. However, this is customarily not done, and the New South Wales Bar Association instructs that "KC" and "SC" postnominals should not be used for superior court judges. In Canada, both the federal government and the provincial governments have
2130-467: The arrangement lasted four years. There were five sons (Maurice, James, George, John, and Arthur) and four daughters (Lilian, Evie, Caroline and Mary ) of the marriage. Lilian Hughes perished in the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. The youngest child Mary Hughes was a well known Poor Law guardian and volunteer visitor to the local Poor Law infirmary and children's home. A Hughes Scholarship
2201-529: The bench and the bar, who give advice to the relevant Attorney General on appointments. The reforms have been designed to make the award a recognition of merit by individual members of the bar, often coupled with community service. The federal government stopped appointing Queen's Counsel in 1993, but resumed the practice in 2013 under the Harper Ministry . Appointments are recommended by the Minister of Justice, assisted by an advisory committee. In 2014,
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2272-512: The candidates to have a minimum five years of experience, and to have made an outstanding contribution to the practice of law with high professional standards and good character and repute. The attorney general , solicitor-general and king's serjeants were King's Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England . The first Queen's Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon , who was given
2343-445: The change in each jurisdiction were permitted to retain the old title. In the 2010s, some states moved to revert to the old title of Queen's Counsel. In 2013, Queensland restored the rank of Queen's Counsel. Those appointed Senior Counsel before the reintroduction of Queen's Counsel were given the option of retaining their old title or seeking appointment as Queen's Counsel, while all new appointments would be as Queen's Counsel only. Of
2414-682: The constitutional authority to appoint a lawyer as King's Counsel. During the reign of a queen, the title is properly "Her Majesty's Counsel learned in the law" but normally referred to as "Queen's Counsel" and abbreviated "Q.C." in English or "c.r." in French ( conseiller de la reine or conseillère de la reine for a female counsel). During the reign of a king, the title is "King's Counsel" or "K.C." in English, but continues to be "c.r." in French ( conseillier du roi or conseillière du roi ). Lawyers continue to be appointed King's Counsel by
2485-450: The court before others – allowed for the swift resolution of Crown litigation. The new rank of King's Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The attorney-general and solicitor-general had similarly succeeded the king's serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, though not technically senior until 1623, except for
2556-454: The designation, while others have either abolished the position or renamed it so as to remove monarchical connotations — for example, " Senior Counsel " or "Senior Advocate". Appointment as King's Counsel is an office recognised by courts . Members in the UK have the privilege of sitting within the inner bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a particular design, appointment as King's Counsel
2627-414: The federal government and by nine of the ten Canadian provinces . The award has been criticised in the past on the basis that appointment as King's Counsel depended largely on political affiliation. However, in those provinces which continue to appoint lawyers as King's Counsel reforms have been made to de-politicise the award. Candidates are increasingly screened by committees composed of representatives of
2698-534: The government appointed seven lawyers as Queen's Counsel. All were employed in the federal public service. Since 2015, under the Trudeau Ministry , federal appointments as a Queen's Counsel (or King's Counsel since 8 September 2022) has been limited to the Attorney General of Canada . Jody Wilson-Raybould was appointed as Queen's Counsel when she served as Attorney General and David Lametti
2769-493: The law of conspiracy . During the invasion scare of 1859 , Hughes raised the 19th (Bloomsbury) Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps from among the students of the Working Men's College, and commanded it with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel until 1869, when he became the unit's first Honorary Colonel . The battalion was known as 'Tom Brown's Corps'. Hughes estimated that it was the poorest in London, Rifle Volunteer Corps at
2840-605: The legal restrictions should be dropped. Then the matter was raised again in a second Commission, at the end of Hughes's time in Parliament. At that point Alexander Macdonald used a minority report to refer back to Hughes's earlier view; but Hughes signed the majority report. It advocated amendment of the Master and Servant Act 1867 , but little substantive change to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1871 and
2911-596: The much-criticised "secret soundings" of judges and other establishment legal figures upon which the old system was based. This was held to be inappropriate and unfair given the size of the modern profession, as well as a possible source of improper government patronage (since the final recommendations were made by the Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the government), and discriminatory against part-time workers, women, and ethnic minorities. In November 2004, after much public debate in favour of and against retaining
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2982-517: The name of the Crown. The result was that, until 1920 in England and Wales , KCs had to have a licence to appear in criminal cases for the defence. King's Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the mid-nineteenth century, from drafting pleadings alone; a junior barrister had to be retained. They could not appear in judges' chambers or inferior courts, either, other than in exceptional cases. They were not permitted to appear in court without
3053-482: The number of Queen's Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queen's Counsel was 187. The list of Queen's Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queen's Counsel was 181. In each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queen's Counsel was 208, 209, 221, 236 and 262, respectively. In each of
3124-490: The option of changing their post-nominal to QC. With the death of Queen Elizabeth II, the Australian Bar Association confirmed that all existing Queen's Counsel would become King's Counsel automatically. When taking judicial office in a superior court, a barrister loses the title of King's Counsel and only regains it if new letters patent are issued after the person leaves office. Conversely, since
3195-414: The prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts. The earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were King's Counsel, a proportion of about 8.5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice (i.e., excluding pupil barristers and employed barristers). In 1839,
3266-561: The process involves a committee made up of senior members of the State's bar, and usually a non-practising former barrister such as a retired judge. The committee then consults with judges, peers, and law firms on the applicant's suitability for the position. The selection committee deliberates in private, and reasons for the decisions are not published. From 1993, the Commonwealth and most state and territory governments began to replace
3337-410: The profession, giving the holder certain rights and privileges in the courts. They were ranked as senior counsel, and took precedence in argument after the Attorney General and the Solicitor General of England. Barristers who were not King's (or Queen's) Counsel were termed junior barristers , and followed senior barristers in argument. King's (or Queen's) Counsel normally always appeared in courts with
3408-536: The professional eminence of the counsel upon whom it is conferred. Until the late 19th century, some barristers were granted a patent of precedence in order to obtain the same precedence as a KC without the concomitant restrictions. King's Counsel were originally considered an office of profit and hence, under the Act of Settlement 1701 , incompatible with membership of the House of Commons . KCs were also required to take
3479-461: The provincial Cabinet on the advice of the Attorney General of British Columbia . No more than 7% of the bar of British Columbia can be awarded the designation. Before making the recommendation to Cabinet, the Attorney General is required by statute to consult with the Chief Justice of British Columbia , the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of British Columbia , and two lawyers appointed by
3550-465: The sculptor was Thomas Brock , and the statue was unveiled in 1899. Queen%27s Counsel A King's Counsel ( post-nominal initials KC ) is a senior lawyer appointed by the monarch (or their viceregal representative) of some Commonwealth realms as a "Counsel learned in the law". When the reigning monarch is a woman, the title is Queen's Counsel ( QC ). The position originated in England and Wales. Some Commonwealth countries have retained
3621-650: The time being predominantly middle class. He also served as deputy editor of the Volunteer Services Gazette . In 1878–9 Hughes began writing The Manual for Co-operators (1881), with Vansittart Neale , for the Co-operative Congress. As a side-product he developed an interest in the model village . In 1880, he acquired the ownership of Franklin W. Smith 's Plateau City and founded a settlement in America— Rugby, Tennessee —which
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#17327830613493692-408: The title of Queen's Counsel and appointment by letters patent with the title Senior Counsel as an honorific conferred by the legal profession, a trend that would reverse in the 2010s. There is no difference in status between a King's Counsel and a Senior Counsel. The first states to change to the title of Senior Counsel were New South Wales in 1993 and Queensland in 1994. Most other states and
3763-463: The title, the government announced that appointments of Queen's Counsel in England would be resumed but that future appointees would be chosen not by the government but by a nine-member panel, the Queen's Counsel Selection Panel , chaired by a lay person, to include two barristers, two solicitors, one retired judge, and three non-lawyers. Formally, the appointment remains a royal one made on the advice of
3834-420: The two senior king's serjeants, and 1813, respectively. King's Counsel came to prominence during the early 1830s, prior to which they were relatively few in number. It became the standard means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession, and the numbers multiplied accordingly. It became of greater professional importance to become a KC, and the serjeants gradually declined. The KCs inherited
3905-442: The union point of view; after some lobbying he was joined by Frederic Harrison , and a concession was made to union representatives, allowing them observer places in the proceedings. Hughes then worked with Harrison and Robert Applegarth to diminish the effect of some of the testimony from employers. The outcome of this commission was that Harrison, Hughes and Lord Lichfield produced a minority report (1869), recommending that all
3976-401: The work of the junior bar, which could not be excluded by the retention of leading counsel. By the end of the twentieth century, however, all of these rules had been abolished. Appointment as QC has been said to be a matter of status and prestige only, with no formal disadvantages. In the 21st century, King's Counsel continue to have the seniority in audience, following the Attorney General and
4047-408: The years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queen's Counsel was 329, 345, 370, 372, 384 and 404, respectively. In 1989, the number of practising Queen's Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queen's Counsel was 736, 760, 797, 845, 891, 925, 974, 1006, 1043, and 1072, respectively. In the 19th century in England, the position was primarily one of rank within
4118-805: Was also a prominent figure in the anti-opium movement, and a member of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade . At the end of the 1880s Hughes clashed with John Thomas Whitehead Mitchell of the Co-operative Wholesale Society , over the vertical integration Mitchell favoured for the Society. Hughes died in 1896 aged 73, at Brighton , of heart failure, and was buried there. While living at Wimbledon , Hughes wrote his famous story Tom Brown's School Days , which
4189-561: Was also going to reinstate the title of Queen's Counsel, and most eligible took the opportunity. The Commonwealth appointed Queen's Counsel until March 2007. On 8 July 2010, Gillard government Attorney-General Robert McClelland appointed the first Commonwealth "Senior Counsel". In March 2014, Attorney-General George Brandis QC announced that the Commonwealth would revert to using the title of Queen's Counsel for new appointments and would give all existing Commonwealth Senior Counsel
4260-470: Was appointed a Queen's Counsel on 15 April 2019. However, Arif Virani , Attorney General of Canada since July 2023, does not appear to have received a federal King's Counsel appointment. The provincial Cabinet appoints lawyers, of at least 10 years' standing, as King's Counsel. Traditionally, the appointments are made every second year, but no appointments were made between 2016 and 2020. The nomination process resumed in 2019. Applications are reviewed by
4331-525: Was approved, and the names of the first appointees were published in the Edinburgh Gazette on September 3, 1897. By decision of Lord President Robertson , these first Scottish Queen's Counsel were not required to make a declaration not to act against the Crown, and so Scottish King's Counsel have never been required to obtain a licence to plead in order to do so. In 2005, there were more than 150 QCs in Scotland. The appointment of King's Counsel
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#17327830613494402-533: Was criticised by some as a breach of the protocol against "courtesy silk". Similarly when Harriet Harman was appointed as Solicitor General she was made a QC. Suella Braverman took silk on 25 February 2020; earlier that month she had, like Wright, been appointed Attorney General. Upon the death of Queen Elizabeth II and the succession of Charles III , the General Council of the Bar wrote that all QC titles changed to KC "with immediate effect". This
4473-448: Was designed as an experiment in utopian living for the younger sons of the English gentry. It followed closely on the failed colony Buckthorn (existing about 1872 to 1879), established by another Englishman, Charles Lempriere, in western Virginia; this settlement had supposedly been suggested by Hughes. Rugby was also unsuccessful on its own terms, but it still exists and is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . Hughes
4544-520: Was elected to Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth (1865–68), and for Frome (1868–74). He stood as candidate in 1874 for Marylebone in 1874, but dropped out just before the election, despite support from Octavia Hill . The context for the end of his political career was the unpopularity with Hughes's Frome constituents of his support for the Elementary Education Act 1870 . As an MP Hughes worked on trade union legislation, but
4615-512: Was founded at Oriel College, Oxford. It was a closed award, open only to members, or sons of members, of some Co-operative Societies, in which aspect the award reflected Hughes's involvement with the Co-operative Movement. The first scholar was elected to Oriel in 1884. It was later combined with an award honouring the social reformer Edward Vansittart Neale . A statue of Hughes (pictured right) stands outside Rugby School Library:
4686-657: Was not a matter of decision by the Bar Council, nor by the Crown Office. It is the automatic effect of the Demise of the Crown Act 1901 , s 1. King's Counsel are retained in several Commonwealth realms where Charles III is head of state . Appointments in the Commonwealth of Australia are made at both a federal and state level. The selection process varies from state to state. In New South Wales , for example,
4757-602: Was not eliminated until 1884, half a century after the establishment of the Judicial Committee. Gradually, the appointment as King's Counsel or Queen's Counsel shifted from a vocational calling to a badge of honour and prestige. In 1898, Lord Watson noted in his opinion in Attorney General of the Dominion of Canada v. Attorney General for the Province of Ontario, writing on behalf of the Judicial Committee of
4828-421: Was not in a position to have major changes passed. He had greater success in improving the legal position of co-operatives , which in particular became able to operate as a limited company . The issue of legal obstacles to the operation of labour unions was topical, and in 1867 Hughes was made a member of a Royal Commission set up to consider the matter. Initially he was the only one on the committee sympathetic to
4899-424: Was one of the founders of the Working Men's College in Great Ormond Street , and was the college's principal from 1872 to 1883. Hughes gave evidence in 1850 to a House of Commons committee on savings. In so doing he participated in a Christian Socialist initiative, which led shortly to the Industrial and Provident Societies Partnership Act 1852 , and the emergence of the industrial and provident society . The Act
4970-435: Was published in April 1857. He is associated with the novelists of the "muscular school", a loose classification but centred on the fiction of the Crimean War period. Although Hughes had never been a member of the sixth form at Rugby, his impressions of the headmaster Thomas Arnold were reverent. Hughes also wrote The Scouring of the White Horse (1859), Tom Brown at Oxford (1861), Religio Laici (1868), Life of Alfred
5041-413: Was the work of Robert Aglionby Slaney , with whom Hughes worked in alliance. Hughes was involved also in the formation of some early trade unions, and helped finance the printing of Liberal publications; and acted as the first President of the Co-operative Congress in 1869, serving on the Co-operative Central Board . He invested with William Romaine Callender in co-operative mills, in 1866. Hughes
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