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181-698: Thomas Stucley ( c.  1525  – 4 August 1578) was an English mercenary who fought in France, Ireland and at the Battle of Lepanto before being killed at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. He was a Catholic recusant and a rebel against the Protestant Elizabeth I . He was a younger son of Sir Hugh Stucley (1496–1559) lord of the manor of Affeton , in the parish of West Worlington in Devon, head of an ancient gentry family,

362-596: A Knight of the Body to King Henry VIII and Sheriff of Devon in 1545. His mother was Jane Pollard, daughter of Sir Lewis Pollard ( c. 1465–1526), lord of the manor of King's Nympton , Devon, Justice of the Common Pleas , and his wife Anne Hext. It has been alleged that he was instead an illegitimate son of King Henry VIII. Details of any wives or children he may have had are imprecise. Stucley's early mentors were Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk , and then

543-445: A Puritan friend with rumours about his "ungodly life", Dudley defended himself in 1576: I stand on the top of the hill, where ... the smallest slip seemeth a fall ... I may fall many ways and have more witnesses thereof than many others who perhaps be no saints neither ... for my faults ... they lie before Him who I have no doubt but will cancel them as I have been and shall be most heartily sorry for them. With Douglas Sheffield ,

724-507: A tournament held to celebrate Anglo-Spanish friendship. Yet, the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there, otherwise they were even suspected of associating with people who conspired against Mary's regime. In January 1557, Robert and Amy Dudley were allowed to repossess some of their former lands, and in March of the same year Dudley was at Calais where he

905-675: A Protestant English husband, such as the Duke of Norfolk . In 1577 Leicester had a personal meeting with Mary and listened to her complaints about her captivity. By the early 1580s Mary had come to fear Leicester's influence with James VI , her son, in whose privy chamber the English Earl had placed a spy. She spread stories about his supposed lust for the English throne, and when the Catholic anti-Leicester libel, Leicester's Commonwealth ,

1086-619: A fart' about Elizabeth, but it may have been one of her cannonballs that killed him". Stucley's career made a considerable impression on his contemporaries, and in death he attracted as much speculation and gossip as he had in life. A play generally assigned to George Peele , The Battell of Alcazar with the Death of Captain Stukely , printed in 1594, was probably acted in 1592. It deals with Stucley's arrival in Lisbon and his Moorish expedition; in

1267-414: A few months, a warrant for his arrest was issued on a charge of uttering false money and he fled abroad again, deserting his wife, to enter the service of the duke of Savoy. He then fought on the victorious side at the Battle of St. Quentin in 1557. In 1558, Stucley was summoned before the council on a charge of piracy , although he was again acquitted owing to insufficient evidence, and managed to retain

1448-536: A final, allegorical bid for the Queen's hand; it was as much a request to give him leave to marry someone else. There was a Lady of the Lake, a swimming papier-mâché dolphin with a little orchestra in its belly, fireworks, masques, hunts, and popular entertainments like bear baiting . The whole scenery of landscape, artificial lake, castle, and Renaissance garden was ingeniously used for the entertainment. Confronted by

1629-671: A first cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth on her mother's side. Leicester had flirted with her in the summer of 1565, causing an outbreak of jealousy in the Queen. After Lord Essex went to Ireland in 1573, they possibly became lovers. There was much talk, and on Essex's homecoming in December 1575, "great enmity between the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex" was expected. In July 1576 Essex returned to Ireland, where he died of dysentery in September. Rumours of poison, administered by

1810-405: A handful of other privy councillors decided to proceed with Mary's execution in the interest of the state . Leicester went to Bath and Bristol for his health; unlike the other privy councillors involved, he escaped Elizabeth's severe wrath on hearing the news of Mary's death. Robert Dudley was a pioneer of new industries; interested in many things from tapestries to mining, he was engaged in

1991-649: A kingdom, to lay in his naked arms a most fair ... lady ... nothing regardeth the good that shall ensue unto him thereby ... but so uncertainly dealeth that I know not where to find him. Dudley indeed had made it clear to the Scots at the beginning that he was not a candidate for Mary's hand and forthwith had behaved with passive resistance. He also worked in the interest of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , Mary's eventual choice of husband. Elizabeth herself wavered as to declaring Mary her heir, until in March 1565 she decided she could not bring herself to it. Still, she finally told

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2172-608: A long speech before his death he recapitulates the events of his life. A later piece, The Famous History of the Life and Death of Captain Thomas Stukeley , printed for Thomas Pavier (1605), which is possibly the Stewtle, played, according to Henslowe, on 11 December 1596, is a biographical piece dealing with successive episodes, and seems to be a patchwork of older plays on Dom António and on Stucley. His adventures also form

2353-481: A long-standing problem ... without parallel in Elizabeth's reign". All tenants that had so far only been copyholders were raised to the status of freeholders in exchange for newly agreed rents. Likewise, all tenants' rights of common were secured as were the boundaries of the commons , thus striking a balance between property rights and protection against enclosure . Though an absentee landlord, Leicester, who

2534-520: A magnificent visit by the Earl in 1571 to celebrate the feast of the Order of Saint Michael , with which Leicester had been invested by the French king in 1566. He shortly afterwards founded Lord Leycester's Hospital , a charity for aged and injured soldiers still functioning today. Kenilworth Castle was the centre of Leicester's ambitions to "plant" himself in the region, and he substantially transformed

2715-459: A month the Spanish ambassador, Count de Feria , counted Robert Dudley among three persons who ran the country. Visiting foreigners of princely rank were bidding for his goodwill. He acted as an official host on state occasions and was himself a frequent guest at ambassadorial dinners. By the autumn of 1559 several foreign princes were vying for the Queen's hand; their impatient envoys came under

2896-597: A native Catholic, that is, Mary, Queen of Scots, lest the king gain too much power and territory; he was opposed to Don John being crowned in Ireland. The king disputed O'Healy's authority to enter discussion on the Irish matter and queried the Pope's opposition to the increase of Spanish authority. The Pope was willing to guarantee six months' pay for 200 men and their shipping expenses to go to England in his name, and wondered if

3077-571: A naval force under the command of Sir Peter Carew to arrest him. One of his ships was taken in Cork haven, and Stucley surrendered, but he was acquitted once again, with O'Neill pleading his case through diplomatic channels. The meeting with O'Neill led to an extended interest in Irish affairs on Stucley's part. He was recommended by the queen to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Sir Thomas Radclyffe, Earl of Sussex , on 30 June 1563, and in 1566

3258-477: A palm branch with a motto for Fernando, who is held up by Philip: "Majora tibi" (may you achieve greater deeds; Fernando died as a child, in 1578). The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1572, oil on canvas, 169 x 137 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia , Venice ) is a painting by Paolo Veronese . The lower half of the painting shows the events of the battle, whilst at the top a female personification of Venice

3439-492: A period when Europe was torn by its own wars of religion following the Protestant Reformation . Pope Pius V instituted the feast of Our Lady of Victory , and Philip II of Spain used the victory to strengthen his position as the " Most Catholic King " and defender of Christendom against Muslim incursion. Historian Paul K. Davis writes that More than a military victory, Lepanto was a moral one. For decades,

3620-514: A personal attempt might be made against Elizabeth. Later, it was suggested that 5,000 go to Liverpool and free Mary before possessing the country, or go to Ireland. Pope Gregory bargained for Philip II to defray the entire expense of the expedition, and suggested that if the Vatican were to pitch in then it should receive some benefit in Italy by way of material return. The Spanish thought the leader of

3801-520: A political alliance between the Earl of Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham, soon to be Secretary of State . Together they worked for a militant Protestant foreign policy. There also existed a family relationship between them after Walsingham's daughter had married Philip Sidney , Leicester's favourite nephew. Leicester, after some initial jealousy, also became a good friend of Sir Christopher Hatton , himself one of Elizabeth's favourites. Robert Dudley's relationship with William Cecil, Lord Burghley,

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3982-427: A satirical remark in the libel Leicester's Commonwealth of 1584 and has ever since been repeated for a fact. To account for such oddities and evidence that she was ill, it was suggested in 1956 by Ian Aird , a professor of surgery, that Amy Dudley might have suffered from breast cancer, which through metastatic cancerous deposits in the spine, could have caused her neck to break under only limited strain, such as

4163-451: A short fall or even just coming down the stairs. This explanation has been widely accepted. Suicide has also often been considered an option, motives being Amy Dudley's depression or mortal illness. Elizabeth remained close to Dudley and he, with her blessing and on her prompting, pursued his suit for her hand in an atmosphere of diplomatic intrigue. His wife's and his father's shadows haunted his prospects. His efforts leading nowhere, in

4344-605: A swift sailing vessel, exhorting his officers and men to do their utmost. The Sacrament was administered to all, the galley slaves were freed from their chains, and the standard of the Holy League was raised to the truck of the flagship. The wind was at first against the Christians, and it was feared that the Turks would be able to make contact before a line of battle could be formed. But around noon, shortly before contact,

4525-495: A vast force of Moors and scorned the Portuguese king's troops and tactics. He reportedly fought with courage on 4 August 1578 at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir, commanding the centre, but was killed early in the day when a cannonball cut off his legs—or perhaps, as tradition asserted, he was murdered by his Italian soldiers after the Portuguese had been defeated. The historian Jerry Brotton writes of him, "He might not have 'given

4706-494: A young widow of the Howard family, he had a serious relationship from about 1569. He explained to her that he could not marry, not even in order to beget a Dudley heir, without his "utter overthrow": You must think it is some marvellous cause ... that forceth me thus to be cause almost of the ruin of mine own house ... my brother you see long married and not like to have children, it resteth so now in myself; and yet such occasions

4887-420: Is compatible with an accidental fall as well as suicide or other violence. In the absence of the forensic findings of 1560, it was often assumed that a simple accident could not be the explanation —on the basis of near-contemporary tales that Amy Dudley was found at the bottom of a short flight of stairs with a broken neck, her headdress still standing undisturbed "upon her head", a detail that first appeared as

5068-485: Is dead and as he sayeth by a fall from a pair of stairs. Little other understanding can I have of him. The greatness and the suddenness of the misfortune doth so perplex me, until I do hear from you how the matter standeth, or how this evil should light upon me, considering what the malicious world will bruit, as I can take no rest. Retiring to his house at Kew , away from court as from the putative crime scene , he pressed for an impartial inquiry which had already begun in

5249-552: Is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared composite bowmen . The Christian fleet started from Messina on 16 September, crossing the Adriatic and creeping along the coast, arriving at the group of rocky islets lying just north of

5430-452: Is even said that her majesty visits him in his chamber day and night. People talk of this so freely that they go so far as to say that his wife has a malady in one of her breasts and the Queen is only waiting for her to die to marry Lord Robert ... Matters have reached such a pass ... that ... it would ... be well to approach Lord Robert on your Majesty's behalf ... Your Majesty would do well to attract and confirm him in his friendship. Within

5611-675: Is presented to the Virgin Mary , with Saint James Major (patron of Spain), Saint Peter (patron of the Papal States), Saint Justina (patron of Padua), Saint Mark (patron of Venice), and a group of angels in attendance. A painting by Wenceslas Cobergher , dated to the end of the 16th century, now in San Domenico Maggiore , shows what is interpreted as a victory procession in Rome on the return of admiral Colonna. On

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5792-470: Is said to have remarked, "I hope I shall hear from you when you are installed in your principality". He responded that she surely would, and she demanded, " In what language? " He answered: " In the style of princes, to our dearest sister. " Stucley then devised a plan for a colony in Florida , at the time hotly contested by rival Spanish and French settlers (see Spanish Florida ). To this end, he persuaded

5973-436: Is there ... as if I should marry I am sure never to have [the Queen's] favour". Although in this letter Leicester said he still loved her as he did at the beginning, he offered her his help to find another husband for reasons of respectability if she so wished. The affair continued and in 1574 Douglas gave birth to a son, also called Robert Dudley . Lettice Knollys was the wife of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex , and

6154-491: The Bishop of Exeter , in whose household he held a post. He was present at Boulogne during the siege of 1544–45, and again in 1550 on the surrender of the city to the English. From 1547 to 1550, he was a standard-bearer at Boulogne , and then entered the service of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset . After his master's arrest in 1551 a warrant was issued against him, but he succeeded in escaping to France , where he served in

6335-695: The Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary . Dominican friar Juan Lopez in his 1584 book on the rosary states that the feast of the rosary was offered "in memory and in perpetual gratitude of the miraculous victory that the Lord gave to his Christian people that day against the Turkish armada". A piece of commemorative music composed after the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis ( Song of Moses Exodus 15 ) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas by

6516-513: The Doge's Palace, Venice , by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio , which replaced Tintoretto 's Victory of Lepanto , destroyed by fire in 1577. Titian painted the battle in the background of an allegorical work showing Philip II of Spain holding his infant son, Don Fernando , his male heir born shortly after the victory, on 4 December 1571. An angel descends from heaven bearing

6697-895: The Duchy of Savoy , three galleys from the Knights of Malta and some private ships. John of Austria , half-brother of Philip II of Spain , was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division along with Papal captain Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier ; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria . The Ottoman fleet consisted of 222 galleys and 56 galliots and

6878-728: The Earl of Ormonde , which resulted, in the following year, in Elizabeth rebuking Sidney for his use of Stucley in the negotiations with O'Neill. In June 1569 Stucley was committed to custody in Dublin Castle for 18 weeks, on White's claim that he had used 'coarse language' against the queen and supported 'certain rebels'. Again, Stucley was acquitted, and the authorities released him in October 1569. He had been suspected of proposing an invasion of Ireland to King Philip II of Spain , and soon after his release he offered his services to Fénelon,

7059-518: The Gulf of Patras , where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from Selim II to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League. On

7240-663: The Hundred Years War heroes, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick . Robert Dudley was especially fascinated by the Beauchamp descent and, with his brother, adopted the ancient heraldic device of the earls of Warwick , the Bear and Ragged Staff . Due to such genealogical aspects the West Midlands held a special significance for him. The town of Warwick felt this during

7421-676: The Knights Hospitaller , and others. The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by Philip II of Spain) on 14 August 1571, where it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria . All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the Mediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Europe itself. Spain

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7602-620: The Knights of Saint Stephen , said to be the standard of the Turkish commander, is still on display, in the Church of the seat of the Order in Pisa . On the Christian right, the situation was different, as Doria continued sailing towards the south instead of taking his assigned position. He would explain his conduct after the battle by saying that he was trying to prevent an enveloping manoeuvre by

7783-471: The Merchant Adventurers . English relations with Morocco were also handled by Leicester. This he did in the manner of his private business affairs, underpinned by a patriotic and missionary zeal (commercially, these relations were loss-making). He took much interest in the careers of John Hawkins and Francis Drake from early on, and was a principal backer of Drake's circumnavigation of

7964-542: The Spanish Inquisition . King had a history of attendance at Mass and of knocking his breast daily and so was merely stripped and banished, but then had to cross the Pyrenees in the snow while Stucley's men pursued him. Stucley obtained his passport to leave Spain after Elizabeth demanded his dismissal. Stucley moved to Rome, where he found favour with Pope Pius V, who had excommunicated Elizabeth in 1571. He

8145-565: The Venetian colony of Famagusta on the island of Cyprus , which was being besieged by the Turks in early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and other Venetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570. On 1 August the Venetians surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha had lost some 50,000 men in

8326-536: The West Midlands and North Wales. At the time Robert Dudley entered his new Welsh possessions there had existed a tenurial chaos for more than half a century. Some leading local families benefited from this to the detriment of the Crown's revenue . To remedy this situation, and to increase his own income, Dudley affected compositions with the tenants in what Simon Adams has called an "ambitious resolution of

8507-457: The coroner's jury 's verdict of accident. For 18 years he did not remarry for Queen Elizabeth's sake and when he finally did, his new wife, Lettice Knollys , was permanently banished from court. This and the death of his only legitimate son and heir were heavy blows. Shortly after the child's death in 1584, a virulent libel known as Leicester's Commonwealth was circulated in England. It laid

8688-580: The de facto division of the Mediterranean, with the eastern half under firm Ottoman control and the western under the Spanish Crown and their Italian allies. The battle halted the Ottoman encroachment on Italian territories, but the Holy League did not regain any territories that had been lost to the Ottomans prior to Lepanto. Historian Paul K. Davis sums up the importance of Lepanto this way: "This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans' expansion into

8869-483: The favourite abounded, and Dudley took to wearing a light coat of mail under his clothes. Among all classes, in England and abroad, gossip got underway that the Queen had children by Dudley—such rumours never quite ended for the rest of her life. Already in April 1559 court observers noted that Elizabeth never let Dudley from her side; but her favour did not extend to his wife. Amy Dudley lived in different parts of

9050-486: The favourite of Elizabeth I from her accession until his death. He was a suitor for the queen's hand for many years. Dudley's youth was overshadowed by the downfall of his family in 1553 after his father, the Duke of Northumberland , had failed to prevent the accession of Mary I . Robert Dudley was condemned to death but was released in 1554 and took part in the Battle of St. Quentin under Mary's husband and co-ruler, Philip , which led to his full rehabilitation, but

9231-457: The largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than 450 warships. Over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the " Age of Sail ". The victory of the Holy League is of great importance in the history of Europe and of

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9412-485: The Duke of Northumberland attempted to transfer the English crown to Lady Jane Grey , who was married to his second youngest son, Lord Guildford Dudley . Robert Dudley led a force of 300 into Norfolk where Edward's half-sister Mary was assembling her followers. After some ten days in the county and securing several towns for Jane, he took King's Lynn and proclaimed her in the marketplace. The next day, 19 July, Jane's reign

9593-712: The Earl of Leicester's means, were soon abroad. The Lord Deputy of Ireland , Sir Henry Sidney , conducted an official investigation which did not find any indications of foul play but "a disease appropriate to this country ... whereof ... died many". The rumours continued. The prospect of marriage to the Countess of Essex on the horizon, Leicester finally drew a line under his relationship with Douglas Sheffield. Contrary to what she later claimed, they came to an amicable agreement over their son's custody. Young Robert grew up in Dudley's and his friends' houses, but had "leave to see" his mother until she left England in 1583. Leicester

9774-437: The English court, so that she would not have to forgo her favourite's company. Mary at first enquired if Elizabeth was serious, wanting above all to know her chances of inheriting the English crown. Elizabeth repeatedly declared that she was prepared to acknowledge Mary as her heir only on condition that she marry Robert Dudley. Mary's Protestant advisors warmed to the prospect of her marriage to Dudley, and in September 1564 he

9955-411: The English with a fleet of twenty ships. In four years (1570–1574) he is said to have received over 27,000 ducats from Philip II of Spain , but wearied by the king's delays he sought more serious assistance from the new pope, Gregory XIII , who aspired to make his son Giacomo Boncompagni King of Ireland . Stucley allied with Fitzmaurice and moved to Rome in 1575, where he is said to have walked about

10136-737: The Events, which occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle against the Turks was published in 1572, a few months after Lepanto. It was the first comprehensive account of the war, and the only one to attempt a concise but complete overview of its course and the Holy League's triumph. Contarini's account went beyond effusive praise and mere factual reporting to examine

10317-486: The French ambassador in London. He returned to Ireland in 1570, where he fitted out a ship at Waterford and made a great show of his piety, proceeding through the streets of the city on his knees as he offered himself up to God. He then sailed from Waterford on 17 April, supposedly for London, but his real destination was Vimeiro , northwest of Lisbon . He had 28 men on board, but only the sole Italian knew their course, and

10498-434: The French army. His military talents brought him to the attention of Henri III de Montmorency , and he was sent to England with a letter of recommendation from Henry II of France to his supposed half-brother Edward VI of England . On his arrival he proceeded on 16 September 1552 to reveal the French plans for the capture of Calais and for a descent upon England, the furtherance of which had, according to his account, been

10679-496: The French version by Du Bartas , accompanied James' 1591 edition; a Latin version, the Naupactiados Metaphrasis by Thomas Murray (1564–1623), followed a year after James' 1603 publication. The royal connection ensured that the battle was featured in Stuart aquatic pageants representing sea battles between Christians and Turks well into the reign. In 1632, the story of the battle was retold in couplets in Abraham Holland 's Naumachia . Centuries later G. K. Chesterton revisited

10860-401: The Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don Juan attacked and took Tunis , only for it to be retaken by the Ottomans in 1574. Venice, fearing the loss of its Dalmatian possessions and a possible invasion of Friuli , and eager to cut its losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated unilateral negotiations with the Porte . The Holy League was disbanded with

11041-415: The Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Greece under Ottoman authority, with the exceptions of the Spanish-controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta . But after 1580, the Ottoman Empire could no longer compete with the advances of European navies, especially following the development of the galleon and line of battle tactics. The Holy League credited

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11222-409: The Mediterranean, thus maintaining Western dominance, and confidence grew in the West that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten." The Ottomans were quick to rebuild their navy. By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys, 8 galleasses, and in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean. With this new fleet

11403-477: The Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean. Sultan Selim II 's Chief Minister, the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha , even boasted to the Venetian emissary Marcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumph at Lepanto caused no lasting harm to the Ottoman Empire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in the same year was a significant blow, saying that: You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know

11584-418: The Ottoman Empire, with the Ottoman fleet almost completely destroyed. However, the battle had no lasting impact on the Ottoman navy as the Ottomans rapidly rebuilt their fleet in under 6 months. The battle has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis , both for tactical parallels and for its crucial importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. It was also of great symbolic importance in

11765-468: The Ottoman Turks had terrified Europe, and the victories of Suleiman the Magnificent caused Christian Europe serious concern. The defeat at Lepanto further exemplified the rapid deterioration of Ottoman might under Selim II , and Christians rejoiced at this setback for the Ottomans. The mystique of Ottoman power was tarnished significantly by this battle, and Christian Europe was heartened. The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope Pius V to rescue

11946-587: The Ottoman admiral ( Kapudan-i Derya ), supported by the corsairs Mehmed Sirocco (Mehmed Şuluk) of Alexandria and Uluç Ali , commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots , and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were significantly deficient in their elite corps of janissaries . The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves, many of them Christians who had been captured in previous conquests and engagements. The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from

12127-432: The Papal States, five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys each from the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privately owned galleys in Spanish service. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried approximately 30,000 fighting troops: 7,000 Spanish Empire regular infantry of excellent quality, (4,000 of

12308-444: The Polish victory procession following this battle with the backdrop of the Battle of Lepanto. It was later owned by the Dominicans of Poznań and since 1927 has been on display in Wawel Castle , Kraków . The Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna (1887) is displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid. The statue of John of Austria in Messina was erected by decision of the city's Senate in 1571, as John had returned to Messina after

12489-427: The Pope). Philip II sent him on to Lisbon , where he was to meet Fitzmaurice and secure better ships before sailing for Ireland. Here, King Sebastian of Portugal invited Stucley to take up a command in his army, which included Portuguese and German mercenaries, in preparation for an invasion of Morocco (an ally of England against Spain) in an attack upon the Moors. Stucley abandoned the Irish invasion, and destroyed

12670-482: The Queen deeply. She never accepted it, humiliating Leicester in public: "my open and great disgraces delivered from her Majesty's mouth". Then again, she would be as fond of him as ever. In 1583 she informed ambassadors that Lettice Dudley was "a she-wolf" and her husband a "traitor" and "a cuckold". Lady Leicester's social life was much curtailed. Even her movements could pose a political problem, as Francis Walsingham explained: "I see not her Majesty disposed to use

12851-483: The Queen of his marriage; nine months later Leicester's enemies at court acquainted her with the situation, causing a furious outburst. She already had been aware of his marriage plans a year earlier, though. Leicester's hope of an heir was fulfilled in 1581 when another Robert Dudley, styled Lord Denbigh, was born. The child died aged three in 1584, leaving his parents disconsolate. Leicester found comfort in God since, as he wrote, "princes ... seldom do pity according to

13032-412: The Queen's stead. He largely assumed charge of court ceremonial and organised hundreds of small and large festivities. From 1587 he was Lord Steward , being responsible for the royal household 's supply with food and other commodities. He displayed a strong sense for economising and reform in this function, which he had de facto occupied long before his official appointment. The sanitary situation in

13213-622: The Roman Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier ; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria . The Republic of Venice contributed 109 galleys and six galleasses, 49 galleys came from the Spanish Empire (including 26 from the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, and other Italian territories), 27 galleys of the Genoese fleet , seven galleys from

13394-504: The Spanish Empire's troops were drawn from the Kingdom of Naples, mostly Calabria), 7,000 Germans, 6,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay, all good troops, in addition to 5,000 professional Venetian soldiers. A significant number of Greeks also participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League with three Venetian galleys commanded by Greek captains. The historian George Finlay estimated that over 25,000 Greeks fought on

13575-441: The Spanish ambassador that the proposal fell through because the Earl of Leicester refused to cooperate. By 1564, Dudley had realised that his chances of becoming Elizabeth's consort were small. At the same time he could not "consider ... without great repugnance", as he said, that she chose another husband. Confronted with other marriage projects, Elizabeth continued to say that she still would very much like to marry him. Dudley

13756-733: The Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de las Infantas . The other piece of music is Jacobus de Kerle 's "Cantio octo vocum de sacro foedere contra Turcas" 1572 (Song in Eight Voices on the Holy League Against the Turks), in the opinion of Pettitt (2006) an "exuberantly militaristic" piece celebrating the victory. There were celebrations and festivities with triumphs and pageants at Rome and Venice with Turkish slaves in chains. Giovanni Pietro Contarini's History of

13937-537: The Temple. As Chancellor of Oxford University Dudley was highly committed. He enforced the Thirty-nine Articles and the oath of royal supremacy at Oxford, and obtained from the Queen an incorporation by Act of Parliament for the university. Leicester was also instrumental in founding the official Oxford University Press , and installed the pioneer of international law, Alberico Gentili , and

14118-429: The Turkish left. But Doria's captains were enraged, interpreting their commander's signals as a sign of treachery. When Doria had opened a wide gap with the Christian centre, Uluç Ali swung around and fell on Colonna's southern flank, with Doria too far away to interfere. Ali attacked a group of some fifteen galleys around the flagship of the Knights of Malta , threatening to break into the Christian centre and still turn

14299-557: The Turkish ships were supplied with arms and joined in the fighting, turning the battle in favour of the Christian side. Meanwhile, the centres clashed with such force that Ali Pasha's galley drove into the Real as far as the fourth rowing bench, and hand-to-hand fighting commenced around the two flagships, between the Spanish Tercio infantry and the Turkish janissaries. When the Real was nearly taken, Colonna came alongside, with

14480-462: The Turkish side about 30,000. The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century. However, the Holy League failed to capitalize on the victory, and while the Ottoman defeat has often been cited as the historical turning-point initiating the eventual stagnation of Ottoman territorial expansion, this was by no means an immediate consequence. The Christian victory at Lepanto confirmed

14661-487: The allied fleet and headed for the safety of the fortress of Modon . The arrival of the Spanish squadron of 55 ships evened the numbers on both sides and opened the opportunity for a decisive blow, but friction among the Christian leaders and the reluctance of Don Juan squandered the opportunity. Pius V died on 1 May 1572. The diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to unravel. In 1573,

14842-414: The battle and the presence of Cervantes there. Much as combatants had appropriated Chesterton's poem to the circumstances of World War I , Goudge harnessed that ancient incident to British resistance to Nazi Germany during World War II . Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester , KG , PC (24 June 1532 – 4 September 1588) was an English statesman and

15023-711: The battle. It was sculpted by Andrea Calamech and dedicated in 1572. There was an immediate poetical response to the victory at Lepanto. In Italy alone 233 titles of sonnets, madrigals and poems were printed between 1571 and 1573, some of these including writing in dialect or Latin. This was replicated by the Spanish response, with poems in Catalan and the Mallorcan dialect and full scale epics by Juan Latino ( Austriados libri duo 1573), Jerónimo Corte-Real ( Austriada ou Felicissima Victoria , 1578) and es:Juan Rufo ( La Austriada , 1586). Though these longer works have, in

15204-603: The bishops of the Church of England . A champion also of the international Protestant cause, he led the English campaign in support of the Dutch Revolt (1585–1587). His acceptance of the post of governor-general of the United Provinces infuriated Queen Elizabeth. The expedition was a military and political failure, and it ruined Leicester financially. Leicester was engaged in many large-scale business ventures and

15385-504: The bow of his galley, and mounted a counter-attack. With the help of Colonna, the Turks were pushed off the Real and the Turkish flagship was boarded and swept. The entire crew of turkish's flagship was killed, including Ali Pasha himself. The banner of the Holy League was hoisted on the captured ship, breaking the morale of the Turkish galleys nearby. After two hours of fighting, the Turks were beaten left and centre, although fighting continued for another two hours. A flag taken at Lepanto by

15566-441: The centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley slaves, "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you." John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew, "There is no paradise for cowards." The lookout on the Real sighted the Turkish van at dawn of 7 October. Don Juan called a council of war and decided to offer battle. He travelled through his fleet in

15747-774: The confidence of the King's favourite, Patrick, Master of Gray , in 1584–1585. His negotiations with the Master were the basis for the Treaty of Berwick , a defensive alliance between the two British states against European powers. In 1586 Walsingham uncovered the Babington Plot . Following the Ridolfi Plot (1571) and the Throckmorton Plot (1583), this was another scheme to assassinate Elizabeth in which Mary Stuart

15928-491: The conflict in his lively narrative poem Lepanto , first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provided a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria, then closed with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes , who also fought in the battle, with the "lean and foolish knight" he would later immortalise in Don Quixote . At

16109-478: The controversial land claims of his adversary, Peter Carew (who succeeded him in that office). He went on to buy lands from Sir Nicholas Heron in the adjacent County Wexford , and was appointed by Sidney to the office of seneschal there, but the queen objected to the appointment and in June 1568 he was dismissed in favour of Sir Nicholas White . Stucley had fallen prey to the disputes between Sidney and White's patron,

16290-470: The country since her ancestral manor house was uninhabitable. Her husband visited her for four days at Easter 1559 and she spent a month around London in the early summer of the same year. They never saw each other again; Dudley was with the Queen at Windsor Castle and possibly planning a visit to her, when his wife was found dead at her residence Cumnor Place near Oxford on 8 September 1560: There came to me Bowes, by whom I do understand that my wife

16471-432: The craft of the courtier at the courts of Henry VIII, and especially Edward VI , among whose companions he served. In 1549, Robert Dudley participated in crushing Kett's Rebellion and probably first met Amy Robsart , whom he was to wed on 4 June 1550 in the presence of the young King Edward. She was of the same age as the bridegroom and the daughter and heiress of Sir John Robsart, a gentleman-farmer of Norfolk . It

16652-729: The death of his younger brother Henry. On Elizabeth I's accession in November 1558, Dudley was appointed Master of the Horse . In October 1562, he became a privy councillor and, in 1587, was appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household . In 1564, Dudley became Earl of Leicester and, from 1563, one of the greatest landowners in North Wales and the English West Midlands by royal grants. The Earl of Leicester

16833-434: The difference between your loss and ours. In wrestling Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor. In 1572, the allied Christian fleet resumed operations and faced a renewed Ottoman navy of 200 vessels under Kılıç Ali Pasha , but the Ottoman commander actively avoided engaging

17014-423: The earldoms of Leicester and Warwick. His mother supported him, but maintained that she had been strongly against raising the issue and was possibly pressured by her son. Leicester himself had throughout considered the boy as illegitimate. On 21 September 1578, Leicester secretly married Lady Essex at his country house at Wanstead , with only a handful of relatives and friends present. He did not dare to tell

17195-582: The exiled claimant to the Portuguese throne after 1580. Apart from their legal function, the Inns of Court were the Tudor equivalents of gentlemen's clubs . In 1561, grateful for favours he had done them, the Inner Temple admitted Dudley as their most privileged member, their "Lord and Governor". He was allowed to build his own apartments on the premises and organised grand festivities and performances in

17376-456: The exotic theologian, Antonio del Corro , at Oxford. Over del Corro's controversial case he even sacked the university's Vice-Chancellor. Around 100 books were dedicated to Robert Dudley during Elizabeth's reign. In 1564/1567 Arthur Golding dedicated his popular translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses to the Earl. Dudley took a special interest in translations, which were seen as a means to popularise learning among "all who could read." He

17557-531: The expedition should be married, so as to prevent papal approval of a match with Mary. British spies had been sending home rumours of Stucley's plans since Archbishop Fitzgibbon's intervention in Spain. In 1572, Oliver King informed London of invasion plans; in March 1573 Elizabeth's spymaster Sir William Cecil , Lord Burghley, received intelligence that certain " decayed gentlemen " were to join Stucley in Spain for

17738-478: The family fortunes, as they had renounced any rights to their father's former possessions or titles when their own attainders had been lifted in January 1558. Robert Dudley financed the lifestyle expected of a royal favourite by large loans from City of London merchants until in April 1560 Elizabeth granted him his first export licence, worth £ 6,000 p.a. He also received some of his father's lands, but since he

17919-543: The favour of Queen Mary I of England . On the death of his wife's grandfather at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign he came into money, and he accommodated himself to the Protestant succession and became a supporter of Sir Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester . In 1561, he was given a captaincy at Berwick, where he lived sumptuously; during the winter, he made firm friends with the Gaelic nobleman Shane O'Neill of Ulster, upon

18100-525: The first joint stock companies in English history. The Earl also concerned himself with relieving unemployment among the poor. On a personal level, he gave to poor people, petitioners, and prisons on a daily basis. Due to his interests in trade and exploration, as well as his debts, his contacts with the London city fathers were intense. He was an enthusiastic investor in the Muscovy Company and

18281-606: The first royal patent issued to actors to allow them to tour the country unmolested by local authorities. The Earl also kept a separate company of musicians who in 1586 played before the King of Denmark ; with them travelled William Kempe , "the Lord Leicester's jesting player". Leicester possessed one of the largest collections of paintings in Elizabethan England, being the first great private collector. He

18462-645: The fleet of the Holy League which was sailing east from Messina , Sicily . The fleet of the Holy League consisted of 109 galleys and six galleasses from the Republic of Venice , 49 galleys from the Spanish Empire , 27 galleys from the Republic of Genoa , seven galleys from the Papal States , five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , three galleys from

18643-618: The foremost interventionist . Burghley was more cautious of military engagement while in a dilemma over his Protestant predilections. Until about 1571/1572, Dudley supported Mary Stuart's succession rights to the English throne. He was also, from the early 1560s, on the best terms with the Protestant lords in Scotland, thereby supporting the English or, as he saw it, the Protestant interest. After Mary Stuart's flight into England (1568) Leicester was, unlike Cecil, in favour of restoring her as Scottish queen under English control, preferably with

18824-632: The form of an inquest . The jury found that it was an accident: Lady Dudley, staying alone "in a certain chamber", had fallen down the adjoining stairs, sustaining two head injuries and breaking her neck. It was widely suspected that Dudley had arranged his wife's death to be able to marry the Queen. The scandal played into the hands of nobles and politicians who desperately tried to prevent Elizabeth from marrying him. Most historians have considered murder to be unlikely. The coroner's report came to light in The National Archives in 2008 and

19005-416: The former were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts, and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs. The Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and able to bear arms, adding to the fighting power of their ships, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons. Ali Pasha ,

19186-630: The foundation of a literary and historiographical tradition that often depicted Leicester as the Machiavellian "master courtier" and as a deplorable figure around Elizabeth I. More recent research has led to a reassessment of his place in Elizabethan government and society . Robert Dudley was the fifth son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland , and his wife Jane , daughter of Sir Edward Guildford . His paternal grandfather, Edmund Dudley , had been an adviser to King Henry VII and

19367-433: The general misery of battle. Many Greek rowers serving on Turkish galleys managed to seize them with mutiny and deliver them in time to the Christian allies. At the end of the battle, the Christians had taken 117 galleys and 20 galliots, and sunk or destroyed some 50 other ships. Around ten thousand Turks were taken prisoner, and many thousands of Christian slaves were rescued. The Christian side suffered around 7,500 deaths,

19548-562: The hopes of help in Munster. Stucley is said to have declared that he knew Ireland as well as the best and that there were only to be got there " hunger and lice ". The Jesuit polemicist Nichola Sanders and Irish members of the expedition made their way back to Rome, and continued the now ill-fated invasion, deprived of most of its money and men by Stucley's desertion. On landing in Morocco, Stucley objected to marching straight away against

19729-485: The impression that Elizabeth was fooling them, "keeping Lord Robert's enemies and the country engaged with words until this wicked deed of killing his wife is consummated." "Lord Robert", the new Spanish ambassador de Quadra was convinced, was the man "in whom it is easy to recognise the king that is to be ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert." Many of the nobility would not brook Dudley's new prominence, as they could not "put up with his being King." Plans to kill

19910-437: The invasion of England, but there was still stomach for supporting the Irish. In 1576 Fitzmaurice had been warmly received at Rome, where William Allen , later a cardinal, was also present, having presented to the Pope a plot for the invasion of England through Liverpool , with 5,000 musketeers under Stucley's command. Now, in 1578, the Pope provided Stucley with infantry and he set out with 2,000 fighting men. The force had, it

20091-669: The invasion of Ireland. At their first encounter, Walsingham had not known what to make of Fitzgibbon, realising that an agent of Burghley's had sown dissension between the archbishop and Stucley, but in 1575 he did have intelligence of Stucley's alliance with Fitzmaurice, at a time when the nuncio at Madrid was urging an invasion of England. In 1578 Walsingham had similar intelligence, and having failed to induce Archbishop Fitzgibbon to give up his secrets in return for his passage back to Ireland, procured his arrest in Scotland. On 1 October 1578, Don John died while on campaign in southern Belgium, of camp fever ( typhus ). His death disrupted plans for

20272-476: The latter's visit to court at London. In 1562, he obtained a warrant permitting him to bring French ships into English ports although England and France were only nominally at peace. At about this time, on being presented to the queen he said he would prefer to be sovereign of a molehill than the subject of the greatest king in Christendom and that he had a presentiment he would be a prince before he died. She

20453-568: The main force from Venice under Sebastiano Venier , later Doge of Venice , in July and August 1571 at Messina , Sicily . The Christian fleet consisted of 206 galleys and six galleasses (large new galleys with substantial artillery , developed by the Venetians). John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division, with his principal deputies and counselors being

20634-548: The maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire—mainly Greeks (according to Finlay, around 5,000 ), Berbers , Syrians , and Egyptians —and 25,000 soldiers from the Ottoman Empire as well as a few thousand from their North African allies. While soldiers on board the ships were roughly matched in numbers, an advantage for the Christians was the numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships. It

20815-614: The meaning and importance of these events. It is also the only full historical account by an immediate commentator, blending his straightforward narrative with keen and consistent reflections on the political philosophy of conflict in the context of the Ottoman–Catholic confrontation in the early modern Mediterranean. There are many pictorial representations of the battle. Prints of the order of battle appeared in Venice and Rome in 1571. Numerous paintings were commissioned, including one in

20996-523: The morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north–south line: The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and two galliots on its right under Mehmed Siroco, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana , and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the south offshore under Uluç Ali . A small reserve consisted of eight galleys, 22 galliots, and 64 fustas , behind

21177-595: The most fertile agricultural areas near the cities, with adverse effects on the economy of the Venetian cities in the region. Peace would hold between the two states until the Cretan War of 1645. In 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish-supported Hafsid dynasty, which had been re-installed after John of Austria's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans

21358-443: The most powerful and important political figures, working intimately with the Queen. Robert Dudley was a conscientious privy councillor, and one of the most frequently attending. In 1560 the diplomat Nicholas Throckmorton advocated vehemently against Dudley marrying the Queen, but Dudley won him over in 1562. Throckmorton henceforth became his political advisor and intimate. After Throckmorton's death in 1571, there quickly evolved

21539-498: The northern shore of the Gulf. Barbarigo had attempted to stay so close to the shore as to prevent Sirocco from surrounding him, but Sirocco, knowing the depth of the waters, managed to still insert galleys between Barbarigo's line and the coast. In the ensuing mêlée, the ships came so close to each other as to form an almost continuous platform of hand-to-hand fighting in which both leaders were killed. The Christian galley slaves freed from

21720-469: The object of his mission to England. John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland evaded the payment of any reward to Stucley, and sought to gain the friendship of the French king by pretending to disbelieve Stucley's statements. Stucley, who may well have been the originator of the plans adopted by the French, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for some months. Having run through his brother's inheritance, he

21901-508: The occasion of a three-week visit by the Queen. Leicester was a principal patron of the arts, literature, and the Elizabethan theatre . Leicester's private life interfered with his court career and vice versa . When his first wife, Amy Robsart , fell down a flight of stairs and died in 1560, he was free to marry the queen. However, the resulting scandal very much reduced his chances in this respect. Popular rumours that he had arranged for his wife's death continued throughout his life, despite

22082-418: The opening of the Gulf of Corinth on 6 October. Serious conflict had broken out between Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia (then also called Val d'Alessandria), where they remained for a while. Early on 7 October, they sailed toward

22263-449: The palaces was a perennial problem, and a talk with Leicester about these issues inspired John Harington to construct a water closet . Leicester was a lifelong sportsman, hunting and jousting in the tiltyard , and an indefatigable tennis-player . He was also the Queen's regular dancing partner. After the Duke of Northumberland's attainder the entire Dudley inheritance had disappeared. His sons had to start from scratch in rebuilding

22444-522: The peace treaty of 7 March 1573, which concluded the War of Cyprus . Venice was forced to accept loser's terms in spite of the victory at Lepanto. Cyprus was formally ceded to the Ottoman Empire , and Venice agreed to pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats . In addition, the border between the two powers in Dalmatia was modified by the Turkish occupation of small but important parts of the hinterland that included

22625-715: The preacher was to take the centre instead of the altar, thus stressing the importance of preaching in the Protestant Church. In vain Leicester tried to have the nearby episcopal see of St Asaph transferred to Denbigh. He also encouraged and supported the translation of the Bible and the Common Prayer Book into Welsh . Ambrose and Robert Dudley were very close, in matters of business and personally. Through their paternal grandmother they descended from

22806-563: The privy council, leading to the arrest of the Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk . On 12 February 1571, the king was informed by the Spanish ambassador that news was had in London from France that the pope had ceded to the Spanish crown the kingdom created for Philip and Queen Mary I of England , which had fallen vacant upon the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V , in his 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , and that it

22987-400: The proposed invasion on the ground that once England fell, Ireland would fall of itself. The archbishop's brief was to request the appointment of John of Austria , nicknamed Don John, as king of Ireland. On removing to Paris, Fitzgibbon informed the English ambassador there, Sir Francis Walsingham , of Stucley's plan. In 1570, Stucley sought to have an English spy, Oliver King, brought before

23168-470: The queen to supply a ship of 100 tons (including 100 men, plus sailors), to supplement his fleet of five vessels. Having staged a naval pageant for the queen on the Thames, he promptly sailed his fleet to the coast of Munster in Ireland in June 1563 to go privateering against French, Spanish and Portuguese ships. After repeated remonstrances on the part of the offended powers, Elizabeth disavowed Stucley and sent

23349-592: The rest fell into despair when they arrived in Portugal after a five-day voyage. Philip II invited him to Madrid, where he was loaded with honours, probably with a view to impressing upon Elizabeth the threat of an invasion of Ireland to detract from English support for the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands. With the approbation of the Duke of Feria, Stucley was known at the Spanish court as the " Duke of Ireland ", and

23530-466: The rules of charity." The Earl turned out to be a devoted husband: In 1583, the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau , wrote of "the Earl of Leicester and his lady to whom he is much attached", and "who has much influence over him". Leicester was a concerned parent to his four stepchildren, and in every respect worked for the advancement of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex , whom he regarded as his political heir. The marriage of her favourite hurt

23711-488: The services of my Lord of Leicester. There is great offence taken at the conveying down of his lady." The Earl stood by his wife, asking his colleagues to intercede for her; there was no hope: "She [the Queen] doth take every occasion by my marriage to withdraw any good from me", Leicester wrote even after seven years of marriage. For the first 30 years of Elizabeth's reign, until Leicester's death, he and Lord Burghley were

23892-432: The side of the Holy League during the battle (both as soldiers and sailors/oarsmen) and stated that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any other nation engaged". Oarsmen were mainly drawn from local Greek populations, who were experienced in maritime affairs, although there were some Venetian oarsmen as well. Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior to enslaved or imprisoned oarsmen , but

24073-643: The siege and broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians, and had Marco Antonio Bragadin flayed alive . The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice , the Spanish Empire (including the Kingdom of Naples , the Habsburg monarchy , the Kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia as part of the Spanish possessions), the Papal States , the Republic of Genoa , the Duchies of Savoy , Urbino and Tuscany ,

24254-411: The site's appearance through comprehensive alterations. He added a 15th-century style gatehouse to the castle's medieval structures, as well as a formal garden and a residential wing which featured the "brittle, thin walls and grids of windows" that were to become the hallmark of Elizabethan architecture in later decades. His works completed, the Earl staged a spectacular 19-day-festival in July 1575 as

24435-516: The spring of 1561 Dudley offered to leave England to seek military adventures abroad; Elizabeth would have none of that and everything remained as it was. In October 1562, the Queen fell ill with smallpox and, believing her life to be in danger, she asked the Privy Council to make Robert Dudley Protector of the Realm and to give him a suitable title together with 20,000 pounds a year. There

24616-585: The stairs of Saint Peter's Basilica, Pius V is visible in front of a kneeling figure, identified as Marcantonio Colonna returning the standard of the Holy League to the pope. On high is the Madonna and child with victory palms. Tommaso Dolabella painted his The Battle of Lepanto in c. 1625–1630 on the commission of Stanisław Lubomirski , commander of the Polish left wing in the Battle of Khotyn (1621) . The monumental painting (3.05 m × 6.35 m) combines

24797-458: The start of the 20th century too, Emilio Salgari devoted his historical novel, Il Leone di Damasco ("The Lion of Damascus", 1910), to the Battle of Lepanto, which was eventually to be adapted to film by Corrado D'Errico in 1942. In 1942 as well, English author Elizabeth Goudge has a character in her war-time novel, The Castle on the Hill (1942), recall the leading role of John of Austria in

24978-487: The streets and churches barefoot and bare-legged. In June, Stucley had an interview at Naples with his Lepanto commander Don John, and passed on details of the plans for an October expedition. The intention was to deliver Mary, Queen of Scots , from prison and take possession of England. Don John, who was now in charge of the Spanish forces in Flanders, said the king would have to approve, and that 3,000 men were too few, but

25159-705: The subject of various ballads. There is a detailed biography of Stucley, based chiefly on the English, Venetian and Spanish state papers, in R Simpson's edition of the 1605 play ( School of Shakespeare , 1878, vol. i.), where the Stucley ballads are also printed. References in contemporary poetry are quoted by Dyce in his introduction to The Battle of Alcazar in Peele's Works . Battle of Lepanto [REDACTED] Holy League ： [REDACTED]   Republic of Venice [REDACTED]   Spanish Empire [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire 65,000 men: 67,000 men: Mediterranean The Battle of Lepanto

25340-656: The tide of the battle. This was prevented by the arrival of the reserve squadron commanded by Bazán. Uluç Ali was forced to retreat, escaping the battle with the captured flag of the Knights of Malta. Isolated fighting continued until the evening. Even after the battle had clearly turned against the Turks, groups of janissaries kept fighting to the last. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ran out of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemons at their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenes of laughter among

25521-412: The train of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy , after obtaining an amnesty against his creditors' suits, possibly thanks to the Duke of Suffolk. His credit temporarily improved upon his marriage to Anne Curtis, granddaughter and heir of Sir Thomas Curtis , but he was reputed to squander £100 a day and to have sold the blocks of tin with which his father-in-law had paved the yard of his London house. Within

25702-529: The transaction. The lands lay mostly in the east of Ulster, a territory anciently in Hiberno-Norman possession, which was much fought over by the Irish and Scots, and would be used by the English within a decade as a base for their efforts at colonisation of the province (see Plantations of Ireland#Early plantations (1556–1576) ). Undeterred by this failure, Stucley was appointed seneschal of Kavanagh's country in south-east Leinster, and had some say in

25883-452: The victory to the Virgin Mary , whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary . Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room. Pope Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by

26064-404: The wind shifted to favour the Christians, enabling most of the squadrons to reach their assigned position before contact. Four galeasses stationed in front of the Christian battle line opened fire at close quarters at the foremost Turkish galleys, confusing their battle array in the crucial moment of contact. Around noon, first contact was made between the squadrons of Barbarigo and Sirocco, close to

26245-783: The words of a later critic, "not unjustly been consigned to that oblivion which few epics have escaped", there was also a Spanish ballad which retained its popularity and was translated into English by Thomas Rodd in 1818. The most popular British poem on the subject was The Lepanto by King James VI of Scotland. Written in fourteeners about 1585, its thousand lines were ultimately collected in His Maiesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres (1591), then published separately in 1603 after James had become king of England too. There were also translations in other languages, including into Dutch as Den Slach van Lepanten (1593) by Abraham van der Myl, La Lepanthe ,

26426-613: The world. Robert and Ambrose Dudley were also the principal patrons of Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage . Later Leicester acquired his own ship, the Galleon Leicester , which he employed in a luckless expedition under Edward Fenton , but also under Drake. As much as profit, English seapower was on his mind, and accordingly, Leicester became a friend and leading supporter of Dom António ,

26607-589: The year before. Thanks to the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance , the Ottomans were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1576, the Ottomans assisted in Abdul Malik's capture of Fez – this reinforced the Ottoman indirect conquests in Morocco that had begun under Suleiman the Magnificent . The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire southern coast of

26788-444: Was Elizabeth's possessiveness and jealousy. His company was essential for her well-being and for many years he was hardly allowed to leave. Sir Christopher Hatton reported a growing emergency when the Earl was away for a few weeks in 1578: "This court wanteth your presence. Her majesty is unaccompanied and, I assure you, the chambers are almost empty." On ceremonial occasions, Dudley often acted as an unofficial consort, sometimes in

26969-422: Was a naval engagement that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League , a coalition of Catholic states arranged by Pope Pius V , inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras . The Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto (the Venetian name of ancient Naupactus – Greek Ναύπακτος , Turkish İnebahtı ) when they met

27150-485: Was a love-match, the young couple depending heavily on their fathers' gifts, especially Robert's. John Dudley, who since early 1550 effectively ruled England, was pleased to strengthen his influence in Norfolk by his son's marriage. Lord Robert, as he was styled as a duke 's son, became an important local gentleman and served as a Member of Parliament for Norfolk in 1551–52, March 1553 and 1559. His court career went on in parallel. On 6 July 1553, King Edward VI died and

27331-417: Was a principal patron of Nicholas Hilliard , as well as interested in all aspects of Italian culture. The Earl's circle of scholars and men of letters included, among others, his nephew Philip Sidney, the astrologer and Hermeticist John Dee, his secretaries Edward Dyer and Jean Hotman , as well as John Florio and Gabriel Harvey . Through Harvey, Edmund Spenser found employment at Leicester House on

27512-408: Was also Lord of Denbigh, regarded the lordship as an integral part of a territorial base for a revived House of Dudley. He set about developing the town of Denbigh with large building projects; the church he planned, though, was never finished, being too ambitious. It would have been not only the largest, but also the first post- Reformation church in England and Wales built according to a plan where

27693-451: Was also a history enthusiast, and in 1559 suggested to the tailor John Stow to become a chronicler (as Stow recalled in 1604). Robert Dudley's interest in the theatre was manifold, from academic plays at Oxford to the protection of the Children of St. Paul's and of the Royal Chapel , and their respective masters, against hostile bishops and landlords. From at least 1559 he had his own company of players , and in 1574 he obtained for them

27874-400: Was among its strongest opponents, even contemplating exile in letters to Burghley. The Anjou courtship, at the end of which Leicester and several dozen noblemen and gentlemen escorted the French prince to Antwerp , also touched the question of English intervention in the Netherlands to help the rebellious provinces. This debate stretched over a decade until 1585, with the Earl of Leicester as

28055-475: Was an excellent horseman and showed great professional interest in royal transport and accommodation, horse breeding, and the supply of horses for all occasions. Dudley was also entrusted with organising and overseeing a large part of the Queen's coronation festivities. In April 1559 Dudley was elected a Knight of the Garter . Shortly before, Philip II had been informed: Lord Robert has come so much into favour that he does whatever he likes with affairs and it

28236-427: Was cautiously optimistic that the expedition would help to contain the rebellion in the Netherlands. In 1575, Friar Patrick O'Healy arrived at Rome bearing a letter from the king and announcing that he sought sanction for an unnamed Irish gentleman to revolt and to request assistance; he insisted Philip II had given his blessing. Pope Gregory stressed that the crown ought not to go to a French or Spanish claimant, but to

28417-509: Was chosen to deliver personally to Queen Mary the happy news of Philip's return to England. Ambrose , Robert, and Henry Dudley, the youngest brother, fought for Philip II at the Battle of St. Quentin in August 1557. Henry Dudley was killed in the following siege by a cannonball —according to Robert, before his own eyes. All surviving Dudley children — Ambrose and Robert with their sisters, Mary and Katherine — were restored in blood by Mary I's next parliament in 1558. Robert Dudley

28598-663: Was claimed, been raised by enlisting Apennine highwaymen and robbers in return for pardons and 50-day indulgences, the latter to be gained by contemplation of crucifixes supplied to Stucley. They were commanded by professional officers under Hercules of Pisano, and also Giuseppi who went on to command the Smerwick garrison at the beginning of the Second Desmond Rebellion . In sum, Stucley's ranks rose to 4,000. Stucley sailed for Ireland from Civitavecchia in March 1578. In April, he reached Cadiz with rotted ships, where he issued magnificent passports to Irishmen returning home, describing himself as Marquess of Leinster (a title bestowed by

28779-399: Was complicated. Traditionally they have been seen as enemies, and Cecil behind the scenes sabotaged Dudley's endeavours to obtain the Queen's hand. On the other hand, they were on friendly terms and had an efficient working relationship which never broke down. In 1572, the vacant post of Lord High Treasurer was offered to Leicester, who declined and proposed Burghley, stating that the latter

28960-411: Was counted among Elizabeth's special friends by Philip II's envoy to the English court a week before Queen Mary's death. On 18 November 1558, the morning after Elizabeth's accession, Dudley witnessed the surrender of the Great Seal to her at Hatfield . He became Master of the Horse on the same day. This was an important court position entailing close attendance on the sovereign. It suited him, as he

29141-412: Was created Earl of Leicester , a move designed to make him more acceptable to Mary. In January 1565, Thomas Randolph , the English ambassador to Scotland, was told by the Scottish queen that she would accept the proposal. To his amazement, Dudley was not to be moved to comply: But a man of that nature I never found any ... he whom I go about to make as happy as ever was any, to put him in possession of

29322-434: Was eight years old; but he still was hopeful—she had also assured him he would be her choice in case she changed her mind (and married an Englishman). As "a male favourite to a virgin queen", Robert Dudley found himself in an unprecedented situation. His apartments at court were next to hers, and—perceived as knowing "the Queen and her nature best of any man"—his influence was matched by few. Another side of such privileges

29503-502: Was employed as a captain by the Lord Deputy , Sir Henry Sidney , in a vain effort to induce O'Neill to enter into negotiations with the government. The Ulster lord sought to use him as intermediary with Sidney and in the same year requested his presence in fighting the Scots, an arrangement favoured by the lord deputy. Sidney then sought permission of the crown for Stucley to purchase the estates and office of Sir Nicholas Bagenal, marshal of Ireland, for £3,000, but Elizabeth refused to permit

29684-418: Was established with an allowance in a villa near Madrid . Speculation about Stucley's future role became intense. In 1570, it was claimed that he had sought to interfere in the Ridolfi Plot with an attack on Ireland in the following year during the planned invasion of England from Flanders. The Irish invasion was to have been aided by the Plymouth fleet of Sir John Hawkins , who betrayed the supposed plot to

29865-436: Was executed for treason in 1510 by King Henry VIII . John and Jane Dudley had 13 children in all and were known for their happy family life. Among the siblings' tutors figured John Dee , Thomas Wilson , and Roger Ascham . Roger Ascham believed that Robert Dudley possessed a rare talent for languages and writing, including in Latin , regretting that his pupil had done himself harm by preferring mathematics. Robert learned

30046-422: Was given the command of three galleys at the Battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571), and showed great valour. It was a crucial victory for the Holy League over the Ottoman Empire of Selim II , and allowed Spain to devote more resources to its campaigns in northern Europe. Stucley's exploits restored him to favour in Madrid, and by the end of March 1572 he was at Seville , offering to hold the narrow seas against

30227-413: Was involved. Following her conviction, Leicester, then in the Netherlands, vehemently urged her execution in his letters; he despaired of Elizabeth's security after so many plots. Leicester having returned to England, in February 1587 Elizabeth signed Mary's death warrant, with the proviso that it be not carried out until she gave her approval. As there was no sign of her doing so, Burghley, Leicester, and

30408-402: Was led by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha , Mahomet Sirocco and Occhiali . In the history of naval warfare , Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels, namely the galleys and galleasses which were the direct descendants of ancient trireme warships. The battle was in essence an "infantry battle on floating platforms". It was

30589-427: Was not the family heir it was a matter of some difficulty to find a suitable estate for his intended peerage. In June 1563 the Queen granted him Kenilworth Manor, Castle, and Park, together with the lordships of Denbigh and Chirk in North Wales . Other grants were to follow. Eventually, Leicester and his elder brother Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick , came to preside over the greatest aristocratic interest in

30770-435: Was one of Elizabeth's leading statesmen, involved in domestic as well as foreign politics alongside William Cecil and Sir Francis Walsingham . Although he refused to be married to Mary, Queen of Scots , Leicester was for a long time relatively sympathetic to her until, from the mid-1580s, he urged her execution. As patron of the Puritan movement , he supported non-conforming preachers but tried to mediate between them and

30951-402: Was one of the main backers of Francis Drake and other explorers and privateers . During the Spanish Armada , Leicester was in overall command of the English land forces. In this function, he invited Queen Elizabeth to visit her troops at Tilbury . This was the last of many events he had organised over the years, the most spectacular being the festival at his seat Kenilworth Castle in 1575 on

31132-458: Was over in London. Soon, the townsmen of King's Lynn seized Robert Dudley and the rest of his small troop and sent him to Framlingham Castle before Mary I. Robert Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London , attainted , and condemned to death, as were his father and four brothers. His father went to the scaffold. In the Tower, Dudley's stay coincided with the imprisonment of his childhood friend, Edward and Mary's half-sister Elizabeth , who

31313-423: Was prosecuted for debt on his release in August 1553 and was compelled to become a soldier of fortune once more. This was not his only financial difficulty: once, claiming a legacy, he broke into the late testator's house and searched the coffers, in defiance of a court injunction. In another episode, he was imprisoned in the Tower at the suit of an Irishman he had robbed. He returned to England in December 1554 in

31494-524: Was published in 1584 Dudley believed that Mary was involved in its conception. The Bond of Association , which the Privy Council gave out in October 1584, may have originated in Dudley's ideas. Circulated in the country, the document's subscribers swore that, should Elizabeth be assassinated (as William the Silent had been a few months earlier), not only the killer but also the royal person who would benefit from this should be executed. Leicester's relations with James of Scotland grew closer when he gained

31675-428: Was rumoured that Stucley was to be sent to England with 14 to 15 companies of troops. Amidst this international feinting and shaping, the Catholic Archbishop of Cashel , Maurice Reagh Fitzgibbon – an ally of the Irish leader in Munster James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald – made some effort while in Spain to discredit Stucley's ambitions , much to the displeasure of Feria, and was supported by the Duke of Alba , who dismissed

31856-482: Was seen as a serious candidate until the mid-1560s and later. To remove this threat to Habsburg and Valois suitors, between 1565 and 1578, four German and French princesses were mooted as brides for Leicester, as a consolation for giving up Elizabeth and his resistance to her foreign marriage projects. These he had sabotaged and would continue to sabotage. In 1566 Dudley formed the opinion that Elizabeth would never marry, recalling that she had always said so since she

32037-420: Was sent there on suspicion of involvement in Wyatt's rebellion . Guildford Dudley was executed in February 1554. The surviving brothers were released in the autumn; working for their release, their mother (who died in January 1555) and their brother-in-law, Henry Sidney , had befriended the incoming Spanish nobles around Philip of Spain , Mary's husband. In December 1554, Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in

32218-412: Was the largest financial contributor, though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of their galleys for Spain's own wars against the nearby sultanates of the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strength for the benefit of Venice. The combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with Marcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met

32399-423: Was the much more suitable candidate. In later years, being at odds, Dudley felt like reminding Cecil of their "thirty years friendship". On the whole, Cecil and Dudley were in concord about policies while disagreeing fundamentally about some issues, such as the Queen's marriage and some areas of foreign policy. Cecil favoured the suit of Francois, Duke of Anjou , in 1578–1581 for Elizabeth's hand, while Leicester

32580-438: Was universal relief when she recovered her health; Dudley was made a privy councillor. He was already deeply involved in foreign politics, including Scotland. In 1563, Elizabeth suggested Dudley as a consort to the widowed Mary, Queen of Scots , the idea being to achieve firm amity between England and Scotland and diminish the influence of foreign powers. Elizabeth's preferred solution was that they should all live together at

32761-429: Was very fond of his son and gave him an excellent education. In his will he left him the bulk of his estate (after his brother Ambrose's death), including Kenilworth Castle. Douglas Sheffield remarried in 1579. After the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the younger Robert Dudley tried unsuccessfully to prove that his parents had married 30 years earlier in a secret ceremony. In that case, he would have been able to claim

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