85-557: Thornapple may refer to: Plants [ edit ] Datura species Crataegus species Solanum incanum Places in the US [ edit ] Thornapple Township, Michigan Thornapple, Wisconsin , a town Thornapple (community), Wisconsin , an unincorporated community Thornapple River , Michigan Thornapple River (Wisconsin) Thornapple Trail , Michigan Other uses [ edit ] Brutus P. Thornapple,
170-474: A complete or relative inability to differentiate reality from fantasy ); bizarre thoughts , hyperthermia ; tachycardia ; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Muscle stiffness, urinary retention , temporary paralysis, disrobing , emotional bluntness , dysphoria , and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia
255-436: A diagnosis of hallucinogen-induced psychosis to that of schizophrenia was 26% (CI 14%-43%), which was lower than cannabis-induced psychosis (34%) but higher than amphetamine (22%), opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up. In comparison,
340-463: A disembodied experience and there is much less emotion associated with it. As for probably the most common dissociative, nitrous oxide , the principal risk seems to be due to oxygen deprivation . Injury from falling is also a danger, as nitrous oxide may cause sudden loss of consciousness, an effect of oxygen deprivation. Because of the high level of physical activity and relative imperviousness to pain induced by PCP, some deaths have been reported due to
425-572: A family of six who inadvertently ingested Datura used as an ingredient in stew. In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating Datura plants is prohibited. Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae , containing such well-known toxic species as Hyoscyamus niger and Atropa belladonna ,
510-498: A few miniature leaves. Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: D. ferox (native to China), D. metel (native to India and Southeast Asia), and D. leichardthii (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America. A group of South American species formerly placed in
595-663: A great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm. Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking Datura . For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting Datura . Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well. Although most poisonings occur with more common species of Datura such as D. stramonium , several reports in
680-656: A great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura , have been known to use Datura spiritually (including the Navajo and especially the Havasupai ). Adequate knowledge of Datura 's properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience. The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern California used to ingest Datura to "commune with deities through visions ". The Southern Paiute believe Datura can help locate missing objects . In ancient Mexico, Datura also played an important role in
765-410: A link between hallucinogens and "lycanthropy," based on historical accounts that reference myriad types of pharmacologically-similar drug-use alongside descriptions of "lycanthropes." In an 1860 book, the mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke differentiated a class of drugs roughly corresponding to hallucinogens from opiates , and in 1924 the toxicologist Louis Lewin described hallucinogens in depth under
850-466: A lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of Brugmansia ), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule , 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds . The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations. Datura belongs to
935-534: A medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi , a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha . The larvae of some Lepidoptera ( butterfly and moth ) species, including Hypercompe indecisa , eat some Datura species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on Datura leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them. Classifying Datura as to its species
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#17327907325471020-458: A moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". Wade Davis , an ethnobotanist , also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion . In Western culture , the same species ( Datura stramonium ) has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as
1105-664: A number of psychometric scales, including the Hood Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire. The revised version of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire, for example, asks participants about four dimensions of their experience, namely the "mystical" quality, positive mood such as the experience of amazement, the loss of the usual sense of time and space, and
1190-630: A number of categories of drugs with different pharmacological mechanisms and behavioral effects. Richard Glennon has thus given an additional two criteria that narrow the category down to classical hallucinogens . Hollister's criteria for hallucinogens were as follows: Glennon's additional criteria for classical hallucinogens are that the drugs in question must also: Most hallucinogens can be categorized based on their pharmacological mechanisms as psychedelics (which are serotonergic ), dissociatives (which are generally antiglutamatergic), or deliriants (which are generally anticholinergic ). However,
1275-506: A result of the growing popularity of LSD and disdain for the hippies with whom it was heavily associated, LSD was banned in the United States in 1967. This greatly reduced the clinical research about LSD, although limited experiments continued to take place, such as those conducted by Reese Jones in San Francisco. As early as the 1960s, research into the medicinal properties of LSD was being conducted. "Savage et al. (1962) provided
1360-560: A rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided. All Datura plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as
1445-494: A scientific context, while other researchers have responded to those criticisms and argued descriptions of mystical experiences are compatible with a scientific worldview. Link R. Swanson divides overarching scientific frameworks for understanding psychedelic experiences into two waves. In the first wave, encompassing nineteenth- and twentieth-century frameworks, he includes model psychosis theory (the psychotomimetic paradigm), filtration theory, and psychoanalytic theory . In
1530-406: A sense of detachment from the surrounding environment, hence "the state has been designated as dissociative anesthesia since the patient truly seems disassociated from his environment." Dissociative symptoms include the disruption or compartmentalization of "...the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception." Dissociation of sensory input can cause derealization ,
1615-578: A single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of D. leichhardtii , the Chinese provenance of D. ferox , and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of D. metel have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native. The case of D. metel is unique in that not only is the plant not
1700-400: A species can be extreme. For example, Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and
1785-476: A state of delirium in the user, characterized by extreme confusion and an inability to control one's actions. They are called deliriants because their subjective effects are similar to the experiences of people with delirious fevers. The term was introduced by David F. Duncan and Robert S. Gold to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives , such as LSD and ketamine respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to
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#17327907325471870-422: A stimulant and a depressant in some texts along with being as a dissociative. While many have reported that they "feel no pain" while under the effects of PCP, DXM and Ketamine, this does not fall under the usual classification of anesthetics in recreational doses (anesthetic doses of DXM may be dangerous). Rather, true to their name, they process pain as a kind of "far away" sensation; pain, although present, becomes
1955-592: A true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient pre-Columbian cultivars created from D. innoxia in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the New World to
2040-403: A universally accepted taxonomy does not yet exist. A prominent element of psychedelic experiences is visual alteration. Psychedelic visual alteration often includes spontaneous formation of complex flowing geometric visual patterning in the visual field. When the eyes are open, the visual alteration is overlaid onto the objects and spaces in the physical environment; when the eyes are closed
2125-411: A very atypical dissociative. Some dissociatives can have CNS depressant effects, thereby carrying similar risks as opioids , which can slow breathing or heart rate to levels resulting in death (when using very high doses). DXM in higher doses can increase heart rate and blood pressure and still depress respiration. Inversely, PCP can have more unpredictable effects and has often been classified as
2210-560: A wolf" (sometimes referred to as " lycanthropy ," or being a "werewolf"). They described a patient whose delusion was thought to be caused by an altered state of consciousness "brought on by LSD and strychnine and continued casual marijuana use." The review was published in the Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal. While both central cases described white male patients from contemporary Appalachia, Surawicz and Banta generalized their conclusions about
2295-536: Is toloache . The Mexican common name toloache (also spelled tolguacha ) derives from the Nahuatl tolohuaxihuitl , meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of Datura species belonging to section Dutra of the genus). Datura species are herbaceous , leafy annuals and short-lived perennials , which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with
2380-1043: Is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous , vespertine - flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family ( Solanaceae ). They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds , but are also known as devil's trumpets or mad apple (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus Brugmansia ). Other English common names include moonflower , devil's weed , and hell's bells . All species of Datura are extremely poisonous and psychoactive , especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression , arrhythmias , fever , delirium , hallucinations , anticholinergic toxidrome, psychosis , and death if taken internally. Due to their effects and symptoms, Datura species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history. Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including
2465-527: Is a structural or functional analog of a controlled substance (hallucinogenic or otherwise) that has been designed to mimic the pharmacological effects of the original drug while at the same time avoid being classified as illegal (by specification as a research chemical ) and/or avoid detection in standard drug tests. Despite several attempts that have been made, starting in the 19th and 20th centuries, to define common phenomenological structures (i.e., patterns of experience) brought on by classical psychedelics,
2550-408: Is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected." Christian Rätsch has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects,
2635-559: Is also a deliriant due to its intoxicatingly high levels of nicotine . Historically, hallucinogens have been commonly used in religious or shamanic rituals . In this context they are referred to as entheogens , and are used to facilitate healing, divination, communication with spirits, and coming-of-age ceremonies. Evidence exists for the use of entheogens in prehistoric times, as well as in numerous ancient cultures, including Ancient Egyptian , Mycenaean , Ancient Greek , Vedic , Maya , Inca and Aztec cultures. The Upper Amazon
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2720-405: Is an inaccurate descriptor of the actual effects of these drugs. In the lay press, the term psychedelic is still the most popular and has held sway for nearly four decades. Most recently, there has been a movement in nonscientific circles to recognize the ability of these substances to provoke mystical experiences and evoke feelings of spiritual significance. Thus, the term entheogen , derived from
2805-586: Is another commonly reported effect. The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer. Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute Datura poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. Gastric lavage and
2890-434: Is causing their patients' illness. The Aguaruna of Peru believe that many illnesses are caused by the darts of sorcerers. Under the influence of yaji , a hallucinogenic drink, Aguaruna shamans try to discover and remove the darts from their patients. In the 1970s, Frida G. Surawicz and Richard Banta published a review of two case studies where hallucinogenic drug use appeared to play a role in "delusions of being changed into
2975-454: Is derived from the word hallucination . The term hallucinate dates back to around 1595–1605, and is derived from the Latin hallūcinātus , the past participle of (h)allūcināri , meaning "to wander in the mind." Leo Hollister gave five criteria for classifying a drug as hallucinogenic. This definition is broad enough to include a wide range of drugs and has since been shown to encompass
3060-656: Is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for Datura . This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002. Datura species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules , but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As
3145-400: Is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as D. wrightii and D. inoxia , are very similar in appearance, and the variation within
3230-521: Is home to the strongest extant entheogenic tradition; the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon , for instance, continue to practice an elaborate system of ayahuasca shamanism, coupled with an animistic belief system. Shamans consume hallucinogenic substances in order to induce a trance. Once in this trance, shamans believe that they are able to communicate with the spirit world, and can see what
3315-429: Is important to consult the definition given in a particular source. Because of the multi-faceted phenomenology brought on by hallucinogens, efforts to create standardized terminology for classifying them based on their subjective effects have not succeeded to date. Classical hallucinogens or psychedelics have been described by many names. David E. Nichols wrote in 2004: Many different names have been proposed over
3400-748: Is taken from Hindi धतूरा dhatūra "thorn-apple", ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर dhattūra "white thorn-apple" (referring to Datura metel of Asia). In the Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita , different species of Datura are also referred to as kanaka and unmatta . Dhatura is offered to Shiva in Hinduism . Record of this name in English dates back to 1662. Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name
3485-420: Is the same person. In a 2004 paper, Daphne Simeon offered "...common descriptions of depersonalisation experiences: watching oneself from a distance (similar to watching a movie); candid out-of-body experiences ; a sense of just going through the motions; one part of the self acting/participating while the other part is observing;...." The classical dissociatives achieve their effect through blocking binding of
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3570-499: The Datura . In Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs , Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has Datura ." The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of Datura find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically. However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with
3655-490: The Old World (see Columbian Exchange ). D. arenicola is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section Discola [not to be confused with the species name D. discolor ] within the genus. The specific name arenicola means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") sand ". American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS)
3740-717: The Western world . Certain common Datura species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups. Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine , which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as Hyoscyamus niger , Atropa belladonna , and Mandragora officinarum . The generic name Datura
3825-731: The early modern period , predominately in New England and Western Europe . During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow D. stramonium in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations . Hallucinogens#Deliriants Hallucinogens are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought , mood , and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized as either being psychedelics , dissociatives , or deliriants . The word hallucinogen
3910-519: The religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers . It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well. In modern-day Mexico , some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz , specifically in the city of Catemaco . Bernardino de Sahagún , in around 1569, called attention to Datura in these words: "It
3995-533: The Greek word entheos , which means "god within", was introduced by Ruck et al. and has seen increasing use. This term suggests that these substances reveal or allow a connection to the "divine within". Although it seems unlikely that this name will ever be accepted in formal scientific circles, its use has dramatically increased in the popular media and on internet sites. Indeed, in much of the counterculture that uses these substances, entheogen has replaced psychedelic as
4080-646: The Hindu goddess Kali . They were alleged to employ Datura in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier. Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including Brachygastra lecheguana , during the Datura blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect Datura nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for
4165-470: The Magic Mushroom ") brought the topic into the public limelight. In the early 1960s, counterculture icons such as Jerry Garcia , Timothy Leary , Allen Ginsberg and Ken Kesey advocated the drugs for their psychedelic effects, and a large subculture of psychedelic drug users was spawned. Psychedelic drugs played a major role in catalyzing the major social changes initiated in the 1960s. As
4250-548: The Solandreae containing the genus Solandra ("chalice vines") and the Mandragoreae , named for the famous Mandragora officinarum , most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons. Datura is considered a deliriant . Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, Datura intoxication typically produces the effects of anticholinergic delirium (usually involving
4335-559: The United States, classical hallucinogens (psychedelics) are in the most strictly prohibited class of drugs, known as Schedule 1 drugs. This classification was created for drugs that meet the three following characteristics: 1) they have no currently accepted medical use, 2) there is a lack of safety for their use under medical supervision, and 3) they have a high potential for abuse. However, pharmacologist David E. Nichols argues that hallucinogens were placed in this class for political rather than scientific reasons. In 2006, Albert Hofmann ,
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#17327907325474420-460: The administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation , and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of
4505-451: The beginning of the 1950s, the existence of hallucinogenic drugs was virtually unknown to the general public in the West . However this soon changed as several influential figures were introduced to the hallucinogenic experience. Aldous Huxley 's 1953 essay The Doors of Perception , describing his experiences with mescaline , and R. Gordon Wasson 's 1957 Life magazine article (" Seeking
4590-473: The brain was filtering reality itself and that psychedelics granted conscious access to " Mind at Large ", whereas Osmond believed that the brain was filtering aspects of the mind out of consciousness. Swanson writes that Osmond's view seems "less radical, more compatible with materialist science, and less epistemically and ontologically committed" than Huxley's. Dissociatives produce analgesia, amnesia and catalepsy at anesthetic doses. They also produce
4675-403: The brain which is important for perception of pain, responses to the environment, and learning and memory. Thus far, there have been no properly controlled research studies on the specific effects of these drugs on the human brain, but smaller studies have shown some of the documented effects associated with the use of hallucinogens. While early researchers believed certain hallucinogens mimicked
4760-566: The chemist who discovered LSD , said he believed LSD could be valuable when used in a medical rather than recreational context, and said it should be regulated in the same way as morphine rather than more strictly. The Netherlands previously allowed psilocybin mushrooms to be sold, but in October 2007 the Dutch government moved to ban their sale following several widely publicized incidents involving tourists. In November 2020, Oregon became
4845-505: The classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade , henbane , and mandrake . All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions , and witches' brews, most notably Datura stramonium . In India, D. metel has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac , having been used in Ayurveda as
4930-591: The earliest report of efficacy for a hallucinogen in OCD, where after two doses of LSD, a patient who suffered from depression and violent obsessive sexual thoughts experienced dramatic and permanent improvement (Nichols 2004: 164)." Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have received extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating alcoholism , and other forms of drug addiction . In
5015-404: The effects of schizophrenia, it has since been discovered that some hallucinogens resemble endogenous psychoses better than others. PCP and ketamine are known to better resemble endogenous psychoses because they reproduce both positive and negative symptoms of psychoses, while psilocybin and related hallucinogens typically produce effects resembling only the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. While
5100-619: The ensuing criticism surrounded original research by John Olney . In 1989, John Olney discovered that neuronal vacuolation and other cytotoxic changes ("lesions") occurred in brains of rats administered NMDA antagonists, including PCP and ketamine . Repeated doses of NMDA antagonists led to cellular tolerance and hence continuous exposure to NMDA antagonists did not lead to cumulative neurotoxic effects. Antihistamines such as diphenhydramine, barbiturates and even diazepam have been found to prevent NAN. LSD and DOB have also been found to prevent NAN. Deliriants, as their name implies, induce
5185-401: The first U.S. state to both decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use, after Ballot Measure 109 passed. No clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage. However, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition wherein certain visual effects of drugs persist for a long time, sometimes permanently, although
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#17327907325475270-622: The genus Iochroma . Datura specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of Datura , but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list D. arenicola , D. lanosa , and D. pruinosa as accepted spp.): Of the above, D. leichhardtii is close enough to D. pruinosa to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise D. ferox and D. quercifolia are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in
5355-458: The genus Datura are now placed in the distinct genus Brugmansia ( Brugmansia differs from Datura in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees ) and has indehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribe Datureae , to which Datura and Brugmansia belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus Trompettia J. Dupin , featuring the species Trompettia cardenasiana , which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to
5440-438: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thornapple&oldid=1181129983 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Plant common name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Datura 9–14 (See text) Datura
5525-414: The interaction of nerve cells and the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord, where the serotonin system is involved with controlling of the behavioral, perceptual, and regulatory systems. This also includes mood, hunger, body temperature, sexual behavior, muscle control, and sensory perception. Certain hallucinogens, such as PCP, act through a glutamate receptor in
5610-453: The invention of LSD. Interest in the drugs tended to focus on either the potential for psychotherapeutic applications of the drugs (see psychedelic psychotherapy ), or on the use of hallucinogens to produce a "controlled psychosis ", in order to understand psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia . By 1951, more than 100 articles on LSD had appeared in medical journals, and by 1961, the number had increased to more than 1000 articles. At
5695-413: The main character in the comic strip The Born Loser Thornapple (band) , South Korean rock band See also [ edit ] Little Thornapple River (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Thornapple . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to
5780-697: The medical literature indicate deaths from D. ferox intoxication . Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning. In some parts of Europe and India , Datura has been a popular poison for suicide and murder . From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra , India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting Datura. A group called Thugs (practicers of thuggee) were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to
5865-511: The more lucid states produced by the other hallucinogens. Despite the fully legal status of several common deliriant plants, deliriants are largely unpopular as recreational drugs due to the severe, generally unpleasant and often dangerous nature of the hallucinogenic effects produced. Typical or classical deliriants are those which are anticholinergic , meaning they block the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors . Many of these compounds are produced naturally by plant genera belonging to
5950-447: The name phantastica . From the 1920s on, work in psychopharmacology and ethnobotany resulted in more detailed knowledge of various hallucinogens. In 1943, Albert Hofmann discovered the hallucinogenic properties of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), which raised the prospect of hallucinogens becoming more broadly available. After World War II there was an explosion of interest in hallucinogenic drugs in psychiatry , owing mainly to
6035-515: The name of choice and we may expect to see this trend continue. Robin Carhart-Harris and Guy Goodwin write that the term psychedelic is preferable to hallucinogen for describing classical psychedelics because of the term hallucinogen ' s "arguably misleading emphasis on these compounds' hallucinogenic properties." Certain hallucinogens are designer drugs , such as those in the 2C and 25-NB (NBOMe) families. A designer drug
6120-456: The neurotransmitter glutamate to NMDA receptors ( NMDA receptor antagonism ) and include ketamine , methoxetamine (MXE), phencyclidine (PCP), dextromethorphan (DXM), and nitrous oxide . However, dissociation is also remarkably administered by salvinorin A 's (the active constituent in Salvia divinorum shown to the left) potent κ-opioid receptor agonism, though usually described as
6205-517: The nightshade family Solanaceae , such as Datura , Brugmansia and Latua in the New World and Atropa , Hyoscyamus and Mandragora in the Old World . These tropane alkaloids are poisonous and can cause death due to tachycardia -induced heart failure and hyperthermia even in small doses. Additionally, over-the-counter antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (brand name Benadryl) and dimenhydrinate (brand name Dramamine) also have an anticholinergic effect. Uncured tobacco
6290-399: The perception of the outside world as being dream-like, vague or unreal. Other dissociative experiences include depersonalization , which includes feeling dissociated from one's personality; feeling unreal; feeling able to observe one's actions but not actively take control; being unable to associate with one's self in the mirror while maintaining rational awareness that the image in the mirror
6375-436: The pharmacological mechanisms of some hallucinogens, such as salvinorin A and ibogaine , do not fit into any of those categories. Entactogens and cannabinoids are also sometimes considered hallucinogens. Nonetheless, while the term hallucinogen is often used to refer to the broad class of drugs covered in this article, sometimes it is used to mean only classical hallucinogens (that is, psychedelics). Because of this, it
6460-529: The release of myoglobin from ruptured muscle cells. High amounts of myoglobin can induce renal shutdown. Many users of dissociatives have been concerned about the possibility of NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity (NAN). This concern is partly due to William E. White, the author of the DXM FAQ , who claimed that dissociatives definitely cause brain damage. The argument was criticized on the basis of lack of evidence and White retracted his claim. White's claims and
6545-406: The roots of certain species such as D. wrightii . Because of the presence of these substances, Datura has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison . A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make Datura exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome,
6630-474: The second wave of theories, encompassing twenty-first-century frameworks, Swanson includes entropic brain theory, integrated information theory , and predictive processing . It is from the paradigm of filtration theory that the term psychedelic derives. Aldous Huxley and Humphrey Osmond applied the pre-existing ideas of filtration theory, which held that the brain filters what enters into consciousness, to explain psychedelic experiences; Huxley believed that
6715-454: The sense that the experience cannot be adequately conveyed through words. The questions on the "mystical" quality in turn probe multiple aspects: the sense of "pure" being, the sense of unity with one's surroundings, the sense that what one experienced was real, and the sense of sacredness. Some researchers have questioned the interpretation of the results from these studies and whether the framework and terminology of mysticism are appropriate in
6800-407: The serotonergic psychedelics (LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, etc.) do produce subjective effects distinct from NMDA antagonist dissociatives (PCP, ketamine, dextrorphan), there is obvious overlap in the mental processes that these drugs affect and research has discovered that there is overlap in the mechanisms by which both types of psychedelics mimic psychotic symptoms. One double-blind study examining
6885-411: The symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone". Datura , as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs , also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia . In traditional cultures,
6970-477: The transition rate for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychosis was found to be 36%. Different classes of hallucinogens have different pharmacological mechanisms of action. Psychedelics are 5-HT 2A receptor agonists ( serotonin 2A receptor agonists). LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, and PCP are drugs that cause hallucinations, which can alter a person's perception of reality. LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin cause their effects by initially disrupting
7055-418: The underlying cause and pathology remains unclear. A large epidemiological study in the U.S. found that other than personality disorders and other substance use disorders, lifetime hallucinogen use was not associated with other mental disorders, and that risk of developing a hallucinogen use disorder was very low. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the transition rate from
7140-804: The visual alteration is seen in the "inner world" behind the eyelids. These visual effects increase in complexity with higher dosages, and also when the eyes are closed. The visual alteration does not normally constitute hallucinations , because the person undergoing the experience can still distinguish between real and internally generated visual phenomena, though in some cases, true hallucinations are present. More rarely, psychedelic experiences can include complex hallucinations of objects, animals, people, or even whole landscapes. A number of studies by Roland R. Griffiths and other researchers have concluded that high doses of psilocybin and other classic psychedelics trigger mystical experiences in most research participants. Mystical experiences have been measured by
7225-422: The years for this drug class. The famous German toxicologist Louis Lewin used the name phantastica earlier in this century, and as we shall see later, such a descriptor is not so farfetched. The most popular names—hallucinogen, psychotomimetic, and psychedelic ("mind manifesting")—have often been used interchangeably. Hallucinogen is now, however, the most common designation in the scientific literature, although it
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